tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-6562748360580692892024-03-19T10:38:46.226+00:00ektalksA science blog designed for community education. Climate Change, Sustainable Development, Lifestyle and Health are recurring themes. Biographies of famous scientists like Curie, Watt, Fleming, Einstein, Galileo etc. are available. Biomedical Imaging, Nanotechnology,Theory of Relativity, Physics of the Nucleus, Making of the Atomic Bomb, Plate Tectonics and many other subjects are discussed in detail without the use of higher maths. For further information -
Contact ektalks@yahoo.co.uk Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.comBlogger259125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-656274836058069289.post-34140999450558017592024-03-14T12:36:00.000+00:002024-03-14T12:36:00.536+00:00Talk 6: Our View of the World; Aging and Perception: Perceptions of the Brain Why Our Perception of Reality is Almost Always Wrong?<p><span style="font-size: medium;"> <span style="background-color: #f6f6f6; font-family: arial;">Slides for prev</span><span style="background-color: #f6f6f6; font-family: arial;">ious talks may be viewed here: </span></span><span style="background-color: #f6f6f6; font-family: arial; font-size: large;"> </span></p><p><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2024/02/talk-1-perceptions-of-brain-why-our.html" target="_blank">Talk1</a><span style="background-color: #f6f6f6;"> </span><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2024/02/talk-2-perceptions-of-brain-why-our.html">Talk 2 </a><span style="background-color: #f6f6f6;"> </span><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2024/02/talk-3-sense-organs-perceptions-of.html" target="_blank">Talk 3</a><span style="background-color: #f6f6f6;"> <a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2024/02/talk-4-memory-two-selves-happiness.html">Talk 4</a> <a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2024/03/talk-5-thinking-and-making-decisions.html " target="_blank">Talk 5</a></span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">The sixth and final meeting of the class consisted of two parts. In the first hour we looked at how we view/understand the state of the world with the final hour devoted to a discussion of the effects of ageing on our perception & decision making, and a brief presentation on what we can do to help our brains stay healthy. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">For the first part, I have relied heavily on the outcome and analysis of many IPSOS surveys which are nicely presented in Bobby Duffy's book 'The Perils of Perception'. In fact, in slide 1, I introduce the books that I have found useful in preparing the course material. Of course, there are many websites that provide excellent explanations on many aspects of the course covered in the six meeting.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiufJR-GBHjyfjKYe4icVIL0NlFnu3o9vbokuSRoHOJWVN305Hpir7QNh3fbLXbqieiXr0H7kOBjoFiWohyphenhyphenUVP98A73L_WASYhfw2L37KZ4sVFCMAzcodkgUZxU-b97BxVNJ-grtKL8IMVow5k-5xHtVRnp-chIs2GJ1rIrS74XKVoT7D1EASL6TFb3ahU/s1280/Slide1.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiufJR-GBHjyfjKYe4icVIL0NlFnu3o9vbokuSRoHOJWVN305Hpir7QNh3fbLXbqieiXr0H7kOBjoFiWohyphenhyphenUVP98A73L_WASYhfw2L37KZ4sVFCMAzcodkgUZxU-b97BxVNJ-grtKL8IMVow5k-5xHtVRnp-chIs2GJ1rIrS74XKVoT7D1EASL6TFb3ahU/w640-h360/Slide1.JPG" width="640" /></a></span></div><span style="font-family: arial; 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text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwn3m69S34MGe9w6YyQvwcQETdzY8HxqVKr_qGHr4fA48Vc9ZuvvajuJZwu8apRIlgV629_RPwAIoJ6F9d9affUh6MvbGInueWfh6YbQ4sgy6bSDmR_WC-oB-9yP9DaDQEBkeioSqcSUJGd6C_cYi3Wbl8UghUXlNFwdO2AYxGW2mQbnmg9N-grk7-LNk/s1280/Slide57.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwn3m69S34MGe9w6YyQvwcQETdzY8HxqVKr_qGHr4fA48Vc9ZuvvajuJZwu8apRIlgV629_RPwAIoJ6F9d9affUh6MvbGInueWfh6YbQ4sgy6bSDmR_WC-oB-9yP9DaDQEBkeioSqcSUJGd6C_cYi3Wbl8UghUXlNFwdO2AYxGW2mQbnmg9N-grk7-LNk/w640-h360/Slide57.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br />Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-656274836058069289.post-2399835154374103622024-03-10T10:19:00.001+00:002024-03-10T10:19:55.903+00:00Talk 5: Thinking and Making Decisions: Perceptions of the Brain Why Our Perception of Reality is Almost Always Wrong?<p> <span style="background-color: #f6f6f6; font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Slides for previous talks may be viewed here: </span><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2024/02/talk-1-perceptions-of-brain-why-our.html" style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;" target="_blank">Talk1</a><span style="background-color: #f6f6f6; font-family: arial; font-size: large;"> </span><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2024/02/talk-2-perceptions-of-brain-why-our.html" style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Talk 2 </a><span style="background-color: #f6f6f6; font-family: arial; font-size: large;"> </span><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2024/02/talk-3-sense-organs-perceptions-of.html" style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;" target="_blank">Talk 3</a><span style="background-color: #f6f6f6; font-family: arial; font-size: large;"> <a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2024/02/talk-4-memory-two-selves-happiness.html">Talk 4</a></span></p><p><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">In Meeting 5, we looked at thinking and decision making. The talk relied heavily on Daniel Kahneman's book - Thinking Fast and Slow. The slides are presented in the following:</span></p><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg70J6Kem2jtjitSvj38JPA28V5KZb0NqvO1bvl1FjQQDRoYpmpApCyGQgyNYYtIOyZJtwUCsUGBtJwoZlD9ZJ6thSYYAKNeWPsjCKC_m-x_pUIf4RhymNYkjXi5_PRRUV1BuLNkPSyijnoUknASMFYxYzmkrZf3xnDOyn6KR0UHUYHunP10KZVMTQ-sZ0/s1280/Slide1.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg70J6Kem2jtjitSvj38JPA28V5KZb0NqvO1bvl1FjQQDRoYpmpApCyGQgyNYYtIOyZJtwUCsUGBtJwoZlD9ZJ6thSYYAKNeWPsjCKC_m-x_pUIf4RhymNYkjXi5_PRRUV1BuLNkPSyijnoUknASMFYxYzmkrZf3xnDOyn6KR0UHUYHunP10KZVMTQ-sZ0/w640-h360/Slide1.JPG" width="640" /></a></div></span><p><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"> </span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjYDtFtaT-tRfqD4Pgj9uvt4Mr-OiRe5ssQPY6qqvw5wPRCGMreguD9OSCJ3keRVJv0-yHXA4iW27dmnTE56fUlPN4aHotmrwr_xxGpXDBvc5m4K05xR4BE-G1IltyhVcdw6cLPg5KcDXEI4Kh2I_xBGwe_m6qjF8EyDoTi8_lFz9v0jganRRQaDglk9eo/s1280/Slide2.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjYDtFtaT-tRfqD4Pgj9uvt4Mr-OiRe5ssQPY6qqvw5wPRCGMreguD9OSCJ3keRVJv0-yHXA4iW27dmnTE56fUlPN4aHotmrwr_xxGpXDBvc5m4K05xR4BE-G1IltyhVcdw6cLPg5KcDXEI4Kh2I_xBGwe_m6qjF8EyDoTi8_lFz9v0jganRRQaDglk9eo/w640-h360/Slide2.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWKIgmgdyZfUa9nqvmxd3YpmiW7U_kQaH8UcbvTQcmwXJA6bqt0lRlFwoDHdGyO70VAcJI2LcCASh-RwH4Y4ef2LnFDpTElrJCBP1RCT79M1dz45fU1NSw94x9OS0zZEgTkHJ3x5vIMqGc3WFmn1UGw7hoyebp84TNMCMUESq3sKy7e4fVMr6z7hKC8Sw/s1280/Slide3.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhWKIgmgdyZfUa9nqvmxd3YpmiW7U_kQaH8UcbvTQcmwXJA6bqt0lRlFwoDHdGyO70VAcJI2LcCASh-RwH4Y4ef2LnFDpTElrJCBP1RCT79M1dz45fU1NSw94x9OS0zZEgTkHJ3x5vIMqGc3WFmn1UGw7hoyebp84TNMCMUESq3sKy7e4fVMr6z7hKC8Sw/w640-h360/Slide3.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQM1oPZrk6pkvMfpmWRCFqX5P7LjZgTQ7FtmVynMmyuqzeFfB6By0LoSyXcyahGA2Fhvpb0ecY3ooz70VNdaFk7hraqdX7X7OnW4JdL61n6l3FPaAionTp0GB0w_uOflZmLcL4CgpDLWy7c6r9S40hLQlezdCoKyqaDtW0ghTh6oneCWL09C0izbcYdcs/s1280/Slide4.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQM1oPZrk6pkvMfpmWRCFqX5P7LjZgTQ7FtmVynMmyuqzeFfB6By0LoSyXcyahGA2Fhvpb0ecY3ooz70VNdaFk7hraqdX7X7OnW4JdL61n6l3FPaAionTp0GB0w_uOflZmLcL4CgpDLWy7c6r9S40hLQlezdCoKyqaDtW0ghTh6oneCWL09C0izbcYdcs/w640-h360/Slide4.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; 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font-size: medium;"> <span style="background-color: #f6f6f6;">Slides for previous talks may be viewed here: <a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2024/02/talk-1-perceptions-of-brain-why-our.html" target="_blank">Talk1</a> <a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2024/02/talk-2-perceptions-of-brain-why-our.html">Talk 2 </a> <a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2024/02/talk-3-sense-organs-perceptions-of.html" target="_blank">Talk3</a> </span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: #f6f6f6;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">In the following I publish the slides for the fourth meeting. The session was given to a discussion of the memory - a store of our past experiences that we rely rather heavily in forming our perceptions of the environment around us. A brief discussion of Kahneman's idea of the experiencing and remembering selves is included. Also included are the results of some surveys about how happy people feel leading to a discussion of illusory superiority bias.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: #f6f6f6;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="background-color: #f6f6f6;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJLmGFTIL_cDs2gaZRqlROv_HonupoUhUBASSX4tZ4PODQplnXfc1_Mn5mq7oHZgzJ4GnasP1qEjYlkNgu24Y5JQ1E1rIINbVqTdsZeHjE40SCGqWfxZ_jsFvqNSgEth560vS6lQZDgOQM-PrI6rtsYpKj7YsVTqOMKwyJ79Mm7GiT9L6VjWnKiM4Pez4/s1280/Slide9.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiJLmGFTIL_cDs2gaZRqlROv_HonupoUhUBASSX4tZ4PODQplnXfc1_Mn5mq7oHZgzJ4GnasP1qEjYlkNgu24Y5JQ1E1rIINbVqTdsZeHjE40SCGqWfxZ_jsFvqNSgEth560vS6lQZDgOQM-PrI6rtsYpKj7YsVTqOMKwyJ79Mm7GiT9L6VjWnKiM4Pez4/w640-h360/Slide9.JPG" width="640" /></a></span></div><span style="background-color: #f6f6f6;"><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; 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font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span><p></p><div><span style="background-color: #f6f6f6;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></div>Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-656274836058069289.post-59798430419677100972024-02-14T09:39:00.003+00:002024-02-16T08:12:40.092+00:00Talk 3: Sense Organs: Perceptions of the Brain Why Our Perception of Reality is Almost Always Wrong? <p> <span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><span style="background-color: #f6f6f6;">Slides for Talk1 are available </span><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2024/02/talk-1-perceptions-of-brain-why-our.html" style="background-color: #f6f6f6; color: #de7008;" target="_blank">here</a><span style="background-color: #f6f6f6;">.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: #f6f6f6;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">Slides for Talk 2 are available<a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2024/02/talk-2-perceptions-of-brain-why-our.html" target="_blank"> here.</a></span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: #f6f6f6;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">In the following I publish the slides for the third meeting. The session was given to a discussion of the brain and the sense organ. Sense organs provide the brain with the stimuli that reach them from the surrounding environment.</span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: #f6f6f6;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><br /></span></span></p><p><span style="background-color: #f6f6f6;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2MjmJ9Oa6ZYSrQVyBGQaUu8Cw_C1M5_0EA-QALcCTAHOV4d_kE3FPLEjW2YjlQ6RLtpwkeJQRgX-8Pua_ONS2ZNQLbQe4q2JhDOpnWmAMlgSHCF9qkC8k9r7kbV6Kc_Yx-MsEq7vqhfij2kdK3z8XUwumDQLGGEp1cw072YIOZ42zaHwDEdE6CkS03KY/s1280/Slide2.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi2MjmJ9Oa6ZYSrQVyBGQaUu8Cw_C1M5_0EA-QALcCTAHOV4d_kE3FPLEjW2YjlQ6RLtpwkeJQRgX-8Pua_ONS2ZNQLbQe4q2JhDOpnWmAMlgSHCF9qkC8k9r7kbV6Kc_Yx-MsEq7vqhfij2kdK3z8XUwumDQLGGEp1cw072YIOZ42zaHwDEdE6CkS03KY/w640-h360/Slide2.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; 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text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFTESDgyaCUGU82IVwRq6Dud3YlZPrSaHqpKDeasJl1ZEwxrnztq5AzCeYBjtsSQYNtsOmUamZecKvLnwOcuXY7ZytN5PmMsEED5uQw5fsJzO9_Sacse-IjWv9Z6Nr2XT2ZY1rCB6vtbAL6W6bFj9UB46SdAK1N-4Z_DRXV_z_hd4nIsxFY3eL9J3sCk0/s1280/Slide8.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFTESDgyaCUGU82IVwRq6Dud3YlZPrSaHqpKDeasJl1ZEwxrnztq5AzCeYBjtsSQYNtsOmUamZecKvLnwOcuXY7ZytN5PmMsEED5uQw5fsJzO9_Sacse-IjWv9Z6Nr2XT2ZY1rCB6vtbAL6W6bFj9UB46SdAK1N-4Z_DRXV_z_hd4nIsxFY3eL9J3sCk0/w640-h360/Slide8.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br />Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-656274836058069289.post-33281452500182785952024-02-05T15:19:00.006+00:002024-02-05T15:26:31.488+00:00Talk 2: Perceptions of the Brain Why Our Perception of Reality is Almost Always Wrong? <div class="separator"><br /></div><p><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"> Slides for Talk1 are available <a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2024/02/talk-1-perceptions-of-brain-why-our.html" target="_blank">here</a>.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">In the following I publish the slides for the second meeting.</span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The first slide refers to a video of the <span style="color: red;">rotating mask illusion</span>. This may be seen <a href="https://michaelbach.de/ot/fcs-hollowFace/index.html " target="_blank">here</a>. The illustration provides one of the best examples of our convexity preference. The convexity preference arises because for millions of years humans lived on earth under the illumination of a single light source from above (the Sun); and had observed features on the Earth that were almost always convex (hills, mounds, trees, animals, huts etc.). </span><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: arial;">These objects were illuminated on top and cast a shadow at the base.</span><span style="font-family: arial;"> In absence of shadows to guide, humans tend to interpret the object as convex. </span></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"> </span></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPgGEzkajzq_Xw8gmremQhfDPYZxDPX-4Ec5WQo0hbWG1WUNeOzsGqfE05617WQSYeaKWw-JhXuUKOwCfbT3Qjf9kaUlKR58fFl1f_mtvtqlZNL-_Fpnr2BEEEK4zEPwkMC8-Ob_SpTtVqFSGywI8a_UiyTS3OFkHSyDMf7jWsSdd_d5c-NKoCH0vFNDI/s1280/Slide3.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPgGEzkajzq_Xw8gmremQhfDPYZxDPX-4Ec5WQo0hbWG1WUNeOzsGqfE05617WQSYeaKWw-JhXuUKOwCfbT3Qjf9kaUlKR58fFl1f_mtvtqlZNL-_Fpnr2BEEEK4zEPwkMC8-Ob_SpTtVqFSGywI8a_UiyTS3OFkHSyDMf7jWsSdd_d5c-NKoCH0vFNDI/w640-h360/Slide3.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh_UWq37l5B4P7Lz6uV6ONqpTG4gnDjTh-tDMRZHlrlKRflCpHVBNsR4DCoqzCBFV_GjxTf2cmOI5HppNjs3pPMbxQFdg92H6WfhaH0HIi1fIAxgn9PDprXmjo1hHYiCJeFUtIhmSmrdniAiT9RN1gZn5DRV0Zg5pyhdE15z4Kj2g_AfYMPlDI-N3L8gc8/s1280/Slide6.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; 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margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiR6Ifey-dL-cBL6xQZcarmfvMvj9ey0EtbhD3vU2TehHd-E85LTBqtUR2dTDnFKy22FW7Fs4ZRDMb_qxkWNPYvhIf8HNIv25zrGiw9s8RrW11zxf1SwkZOYoMvm8dT23oZsSz5pOf28NKFZPfnJqnEEMfNj8gZUMvV0R7qKc33KjAttF4YrSWY31dLnm0/w640-h360/Slide38.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbJJbfTOtHCHlAWWkAa8LMRLAdIuRy_y6mlVw_EkUue2gse5zSbifYKigYFxmeiRtmppxsYFss7vmGtInUK3Oams5XhUalNVkJGDkh-HTz3fKE5EZhR3MZ-dfXT2iy2VOpMXzG_JdyBF1JM6kuEb5eWiyzdiF5g_F3paBkMIA8Cm0PV20CESFWbkxinn8/s1280/Slide39.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbJJbfTOtHCHlAWWkAa8LMRLAdIuRy_y6mlVw_EkUue2gse5zSbifYKigYFxmeiRtmppxsYFss7vmGtInUK3Oams5XhUalNVkJGDkh-HTz3fKE5EZhR3MZ-dfXT2iy2VOpMXzG_JdyBF1JM6kuEb5eWiyzdiF5g_F3paBkMIA8Cm0PV20CESFWbkxinn8/w640-h360/Slide39.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQ1ko3OPC4ZKcLm7hFzEvyyakBXR_Jfs-n3f0WQOo93vVkt2IH43C4oLeKMp5QN6MjWzEOf4F_gCpU68ewOnhERiz2sOJWJCufxsY2eZpfbzIpgMHLiG4ivwOATwZdQfVz-iqtDpDChzzMYZ2hi6BhVcZXEuz4M5u7RUFqoQ2BNome94CA5HcduqP5Q_g/s1280/Slide40.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQ1ko3OPC4ZKcLm7hFzEvyyakBXR_Jfs-n3f0WQOo93vVkt2IH43C4oLeKMp5QN6MjWzEOf4F_gCpU68ewOnhERiz2sOJWJCufxsY2eZpfbzIpgMHLiG4ivwOATwZdQfVz-iqtDpDChzzMYZ2hi6BhVcZXEuz4M5u7RUFqoQ2BNome94CA5HcduqP5Q_g/w640-h360/Slide40.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmUobTDwgxHt4o22AGzA51KqNCiSC4TKEpBEPDn82NusoXSsDLK55y_fJGy16LKkhiTJtCqQcw2qTKXfWfVMbTnQjYE8bTrpJbQ07KVbCE47Gj7F4mQqg4byX5A6h_iYrAdHxMeoJFYIWf3wFkMAh6amsHcGV65tMOdtqAWExlqxh6Kx3Jeuk-UmRNKvM/s1280/Slide41.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgmUobTDwgxHt4o22AGzA51KqNCiSC4TKEpBEPDn82NusoXSsDLK55y_fJGy16LKkhiTJtCqQcw2qTKXfWfVMbTnQjYE8bTrpJbQ07KVbCE47Gj7F4mQqg4byX5A6h_iYrAdHxMeoJFYIWf3wFkMAh6amsHcGV65tMOdtqAWExlqxh6Kx3Jeuk-UmRNKvM/w640-h360/Slide41.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiePMsUKww2pknuP03WjAHYd723N9g5PxiQQd8KTXsxkdX5AaEYXzpfQjDRDklMoQ_HyHv85xxKyttEMIda1x5KwCABWX3eHdXCjl7RbjLcj6-n-6tK1tfu2js86S__50lCm1KiC8DIOhK0KZaLRdxQIJb-WiT15rMFvqTJDFTabWlVwd9zRMkhL5KCCj0/s1280/Slide7.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><br /></a></div><span style="font-family: arial; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiePMsUKww2pknuP03WjAHYd723N9g5PxiQQd8KTXsxkdX5AaEYXzpfQjDRDklMoQ_HyHv85xxKyttEMIda1x5KwCABWX3eHdXCjl7RbjLcj6-n-6tK1tfu2js86S__50lCm1KiC8DIOhK0KZaLRdxQIJb-WiT15rMFvqTJDFTabWlVwd9zRMkhL5KCCj0/s1280/Slide7.JPG" style="font-size: large;">The checker-board illusion is demonstrated convincingly by a video that may be seen by clicking </a><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="https://allthatsinteresting.com/checker-shadow-illusion " target="_blank">HERE.</a></span></span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiePMsUKww2pknuP03WjAHYd723N9g5PxiQQd8KTXsxkdX5AaEYXzpfQjDRDklMoQ_HyHv85xxKyttEMIda1x5KwCABWX3eHdXCjl7RbjLcj6-n-6tK1tfu2js86S__50lCm1KiC8DIOhK0KZaLRdxQIJb-WiT15rMFvqTJDFTabWlVwd9zRMkhL5KCCj0/s1280/Slide7.JPG"><br /></a><div class="separator" style="clear: both; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiePMsUKww2pknuP03WjAHYd723N9g5PxiQQd8KTXsxkdX5AaEYXzpfQjDRDklMoQ_HyHv85xxKyttEMIda1x5KwCABWX3eHdXCjl7RbjLcj6-n-6tK1tfu2js86S__50lCm1KiC8DIOhK0KZaLRdxQIJb-WiT15rMFvqTJDFTabWlVwd9zRMkhL5KCCj0/s1280/Slide7.JPG"></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjkRJ1sbGRWxtTtjGEPjf5BY6qh8kBXJBd5Gkho486qpxH20AxXIIalbBeGXvq1puhpRfGraOSUkSv52d8AdqF1X3QehHUz3TFcdo0H-v9OjvIfpiv5sYIrNaHFx8uLXXK7W0jTKqVXSkKfoPm3BSKiZ3j1jLe0T5opfcjlDYBOXrxePuBj4t3u61PExyk/s1280/Slide42.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjkRJ1sbGRWxtTtjGEPjf5BY6qh8kBXJBd5Gkho486qpxH20AxXIIalbBeGXvq1puhpRfGraOSUkSv52d8AdqF1X3QehHUz3TFcdo0H-v9OjvIfpiv5sYIrNaHFx8uLXXK7W0jTKqVXSkKfoPm3BSKiZ3j1jLe0T5opfcjlDYBOXrxePuBj4t3u61PExyk/w640-h360/Slide42.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; 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margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6HO3I5A05aVIWvwDjd2Vo-7gA014fcHiThlYEH9L_AYvC2aJOcD_uLp5skz2H9I7H32YkW8PGfsHFAnaWAbaYvF_G-lsRjm6QLT8KWm5dsxNCTFyjHAk9scNnDEXxSyOuW8V5P5J-wxk_duoge9U9vLxXFLqDKCqepRWM4z8JEbwF8VbwT9BM3Oq3gj0/w640-h360/Slide44.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhfzAVG98obLWIiC6uRmwTZpRRU1VdGSBHLX-eYoplC3j019hKGNEuTUNGsdmVU2PxcBsQK-OQnJBEZi1KXzqrRtWusHEVOfvnO7lyAVt3HL8oDnQU-qFGzAgWZ1k0pCwDnGmEkePgVb39AB03-m_QyWjQL2ZHfJmjfVqT6d4qIK6juBP7AhZFfjHVrMNs/s1280/Slide45.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhfzAVG98obLWIiC6uRmwTZpRRU1VdGSBHLX-eYoplC3j019hKGNEuTUNGsdmVU2PxcBsQK-OQnJBEZi1KXzqrRtWusHEVOfvnO7lyAVt3HL8oDnQU-qFGzAgWZ1k0pCwDnGmEkePgVb39AB03-m_QyWjQL2ZHfJmjfVqT6d4qIK6juBP7AhZFfjHVrMNs/w640-h360/Slide45.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; 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margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiaT1N_hOzEQf-YyCAn4F4mCs8cdUP4omdF6RKBFouQXPiZ9OPDG6tJqom9qCfdYvfH97ebQ8levdBnCiGlJx2LS5iGeMeSUyq9RSN_dA4Z0UME5XyoaWzXJ3PRQoAJIj9BGmt7VG5LX92syZP1BznEH0A6Iq994gb96DWkgmiT3qqk0ENV_7im3ezZTWw/w640-h360/Slide47.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrcOFOSUoPUvxeOEiV0u-7r9TIVXElSzrNfoCIIlXusLnkEnfIOkELy_srL_OyZbtmQmyBL0oCbdmQx6Wrr5v8ZZLI2-gYWVG6l_uQJhbvjnVSSna8X5EUyAfH6a5qYqTeEffjsvjmLOh48zKjBLqcdfZUIUQp2kdOz6lktqJmOKt_tOMAdm9r7wzEaoY/s1280/Slide48.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgrcOFOSUoPUvxeOEiV0u-7r9TIVXElSzrNfoCIIlXusLnkEnfIOkELy_srL_OyZbtmQmyBL0oCbdmQx6Wrr5v8ZZLI2-gYWVG6l_uQJhbvjnVSSna8X5EUyAfH6a5qYqTeEffjsvjmLOh48zKjBLqcdfZUIUQp2kdOz6lktqJmOKt_tOMAdm9r7wzEaoY/w640-h360/Slide48.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">In the next meeting (talk 3), we shall look at some of the hardware that humans have for perceiving the world around them.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><br /></div></div><br /><br />Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-656274836058069289.post-24293387761872796332024-02-05T11:19:00.001+00:002024-02-05T14:47:17.040+00:00Talk 1: Perceptions of the Brain Why Our Perception of Reality is Almost Always Wrong? <p> <span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">I am publishing the slides used in my January/February 2024 class at CLL, Strathclyde University. The class consisted of six 2-hour meetings. The synopsis of the course is as follows:</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"><i><span style="color: #2b00fe;"><span style="background: white;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">One would think that the brain perceives
objects in the world exactly as they are.
The fact is that our brain uses incoming sensory inputs with prior
experiences, emotions and thoughts to make predictions of reality, and
construct our perceptions. Almost
always, what we perceive is modified reality. Occasionally, our perceptions can be
seriously wrong. This is particularly
true in more complicated situations (in absence of sensory inputs) like
thinking about politics, climate change etc. </span></span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: arial; font-size: large;">In this class, using examples and quizzes, we
shall explore how the brain constructs reality, and unravel some of the
mysteries how this complex organ works. Age affects all aspects of our
perception; we shall discuss strategies of improving/coping. The class promises
to be entertaining and thought-provoking.</span><span style="background-color: white; font-family: arial; font-size: large;"> </span></span></i></p><p class="MsoNormal"><span style="background-color: white; color: #111111; font-family: arial; font-size: large;">The slides provide the text/figures used in the class, they do not convey the discussion/spoken words and atmosphere of the meetings - it was an exciting experience with an enthusiastic audience. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEio9xIEv2e_DJuVEmre0s0Y3-fGa_ls42lwLxwoPaQKHwOdQUnFS4eFcm0SC9I-__1n_IusFa0SDklxg6dRsVegz1ofD9hx1EMI915T5U8MDNlJADQSWiT46UETK28oBbL3_1Aw5GCZ49gm_Oc3GrnlnoDMgK03hu9pQ3D3-YsgQ2ZHOMtz-qWWf5eCa38/s1280/Slide1.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEio9xIEv2e_DJuVEmre0s0Y3-fGa_ls42lwLxwoPaQKHwOdQUnFS4eFcm0SC9I-__1n_IusFa0SDklxg6dRsVegz1ofD9hx1EMI915T5U8MDNlJADQSWiT46UETK28oBbL3_1Aw5GCZ49gm_Oc3GrnlnoDMgK03hu9pQ3D3-YsgQ2ZHOMtz-qWWf5eCa38/w640-h360/Slide1.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; 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text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3v41LEI_fdP_feLhAPZBJVfUk1Fs1le1wzR7NfnTTFCHgR9RK_GVv9FY8NX2ec8SDHTMD0H0bXeA5BRRHl3NE9ImTUetIZLg7hR7KD2tfG103xgoQuXYLRcqYwGi3hCM-ZFZbDuOJqE_02S2kJKIuv_wdbRqSvJEIiPLGOa3Ll9Fbf8l_ck0Q3ro_tMo/s1280/Slide40.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg3v41LEI_fdP_feLhAPZBJVfUk1Fs1le1wzR7NfnTTFCHgR9RK_GVv9FY8NX2ec8SDHTMD0H0bXeA5BRRHl3NE9ImTUetIZLg7hR7KD2tfG103xgoQuXYLRcqYwGi3hCM-ZFZbDuOJqE_02S2kJKIuv_wdbRqSvJEIiPLGOa3Ll9Fbf8l_ck0Q3ro_tMo/w640-h360/Slide40.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: left;"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">The convexity preference arises because for millions of years humans lived on earth under the illumination of a single light source from above (the Sun); and had observed features on the Earth that were almost always convex (hills, mounds, trees, animals etc.). These objects were illuminated on top and cast a shadow at the base. </span></span><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: left;">In absence of shadows to guide, humans tend to interpret the object as convex. This perception is inbuilt in our systems</span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjiURjKSxQaohP8sH5qJsKj4ITVhvOy6U3-avXe_eA3IbSDX9cUZuxDWbx0XxvL3_8gYwhuULzARatf4t2STP2OwZxzIqttgojJM6YZUPqhe7V8I4x6cR27V3cUBeS4PY1_JRakyRDPg6oKkBVE9bprXIP-Mh5F3e5zA_wo1RnK_2RWFpUZ940iGcQYKw4/s1280/Slide41.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjiURjKSxQaohP8sH5qJsKj4ITVhvOy6U3-avXe_eA3IbSDX9cUZuxDWbx0XxvL3_8gYwhuULzARatf4t2STP2OwZxzIqttgojJM6YZUPqhe7V8I4x6cR27V3cUBeS4PY1_JRakyRDPg6oKkBVE9bprXIP-Mh5F3e5zA_wo1RnK_2RWFpUZ940iGcQYKw4/w640-h360/Slide41.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><br /></div><br />Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-656274836058069289.post-17551229657315423182024-01-01T21:02:00.004+00:002024-01-01T21:02:44.544+00:00Part 4 of 4: Our Brains, Memories & Alzheimer’s (AD) – How We Remember & Why We Forget? Well Being in Old Age<p> <span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">In Part 4 here, I publish slides for my lectures on <b><span style="color: red;">Well Being in Old Age with particular emphasis on Sleep</span></b></span></p><p><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2023/12/our-brains-memories-alzheimers-ad-how.html" target="_blank">Part 1 may be accessed here</a> (Brain Structure and Functions)</span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2023/12/our-brains-memories-alzheimers-ad-how_31.html" style="font-family: arial;" target="_blank">Part 2 may be accessed here</a> <span style="font-family: arial;"> (Memory)</span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2024/01/our-brains-memories-alzheimers-ad-how.html" target="_blank">Part 3 may be accessed here</a> (Alzheimer's Disease)</span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; 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margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgu30V-_46y8MD4vzLShC4_F1TkGTucZNZv0QcIrwUf6T7VtfqNw1q8cEmRURDaSHM8oIE1CwwDNCm8HNqOjc6Koh7zqjLUcyCfsOmWiaNyccjAXPp_0-oGd36plZs3hNnyENJWvhczc5y3URGdW2yoqmcwaSI0mkkQjowSpjPI2ZZFl3pyl4KImmsqcT0/w640-h360/Slide71.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">This concludes the slides for the course. Unfortunately the slides do not provide a complete description of the course - my discussion with the class etc is absent. However, I feel that the slides still provide a valuable idea what the course covered. </span></div><br /><p></p>Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-656274836058069289.post-29238298754251796112024-01-01T10:43:00.011+00:002024-01-01T21:05:47.036+00:00Part 3 of 4: Our Brains, Memories & Alzheimer’s (AD) – How We Remember & Why We Forget? Alzheimer's Disease<p> <span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">In Part 3 here, I publish slides for my lectures on Alzheimer's Disease.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2023/12/our-brains-memories-alzheimers-ad-how.html" target="_blank">Part 1 may be accessed here</a> (Brain Structure and Functions)</span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2023/12/our-brains-memories-alzheimers-ad-how_31.html" style="font-family: arial;" target="_blank">Part 2 may be accessed here</a> <span style="font-family: arial;"> (Memory)</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2024/01/part-4-of-4-our-brains-memories.html" target="_blank">Part 4 may be accessed here (Well Being in Old Age and Sleep)</a></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjU5c7vKEhchKgTOl-TrXA1pdXNb92qBJ_KMpq6FQbYmBIfG2EzQx1kMK1_dEAmT6oVRfW45qJW17Yl0KBOQEXWgXqMbnfPzm_X1S8VG3ssQYjBK4oHrPe4uSWtShdTrP-jt-c4MEp8OxKJA8Voz83g8UnmhbPNcf96Mc-qBsZrW6C0rk_IBM_LsnAjqGk/s1280/Slide1.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; 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text-align: center;"><br /></div><p></p>Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-656274836058069289.post-41164230417928192702023-12-31T10:24:00.006+00:002024-01-01T21:11:36.244+00:00Part 2 of 4: Our Brains, Memories & Alzheimer’s (AD) – How We Remember & Why We Forget? Memory<blockquote style="border: none; margin: 0px 0px 0px 40px; padding: 0px;"><p style="text-align: left;"> <span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span style="color: red;">Part 1 of the course discussed <b><i>Structure and Functions of the Human Brain</i></b> and may be accessed <a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2023/12/our-brains-memories-alzheimers-ad-how.html" target="_blank">HERE</a>.</span></span></p></blockquote><p><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2024/01/our-brains-memories-alzheimers-ad-how.html" target="_blank">Part 3 may be accessed here: Alzheimer's Disease</a></span></p><p><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2024/01/part-4-of-4-our-brains-memories.html" target="_blank">Part 4 may be accessed here: Well Being in Old Age and Sleep </a></span></p><p> <span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">In this part 2, I discuss various aspects of human memory. </span></p><p><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><i>Please click on a slide to see it full page image</i></span></p><p><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: arial; font-size: large;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijI_vnnhYX7c_MLO1da9jHRuhgmFIaEVFn0qQUnXebKMmqRq5xr-RwzJ2eIn5BCRnSQ2baKwUZmR6dXHASvzXMdcOwpS2SIYCl3kwurNx0xEju7Ibu0bVRiNusa6eL92XtcdsLdwnzEga3ICcjgwMyPsCOHaYBl-8sjKOGGHeR1s4XQOuU_xLUyxxhLag/s1280/Slide1.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijI_vnnhYX7c_MLO1da9jHRuhgmFIaEVFn0qQUnXebKMmqRq5xr-RwzJ2eIn5BCRnSQ2baKwUZmR6dXHASvzXMdcOwpS2SIYCl3kwurNx0xEju7Ibu0bVRiNusa6eL92XtcdsLdwnzEga3ICcjgwMyPsCOHaYBl-8sjKOGGHeR1s4XQOuU_xLUyxxhLag/w640-h360/Slide1.JPG" width="640" /></a></span></div><span style="color: #2b00fe; 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text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipl18gqwetlqPAmyYm-Zr7EhyphenhyphendnVOawJrxRSXxjVSQpJ8b56GKo8S_YFWoX-cRtZjjtZ_aZGJAFYKhm4eFh0gl905nyrWso1zppElam3WFKuMAeLyv8ZvM3ld-POmqT3SrMu8APvd7fzDYh0wEpFtIf0RVH0pHBlc1wHI-l224W05l2yL9JWZjSGtcCF4/s1280/Slide58.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEipl18gqwetlqPAmyYm-Zr7EhyphenhyphendnVOawJrxRSXxjVSQpJ8b56GKo8S_YFWoX-cRtZjjtZ_aZGJAFYKhm4eFh0gl905nyrWso1zppElam3WFKuMAeLyv8ZvM3ld-POmqT3SrMu8APvd7fzDYh0wEpFtIf0RVH0pHBlc1wHI-l224W05l2yL9JWZjSGtcCF4/w640-h360/Slide58.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div><br /></div><div>In Part 3, I discuss the loss of brain function as we age. Aging affects most brain functions including memory. The serious consequences of the progressive loss of memory is identified as the onset of Alzheimer's Disease (AD) which is also the subject of discussion in Part 3. </div>Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-656274836058069289.post-24057147665053319322023-12-30T17:32:00.009+00:002024-01-01T21:15:00.616+00:00Part 1 of 4: Our Brains, Memories & Alzheimer’s (AD) – How We Remember & Why We Forget? Structure and Functions of the Human Brain<p> <span style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-large;">It was a pleasure to find really enthusiastic audience for a 12-hour course at the Centre for Life-long Learning (CLL) at Strathclyde University during April/May 2023. The synopsis of the course is as follows:</span></p><p class="MsoNormal"></p><p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">Human
brains are the most complicated objects in the Universe; memories are forever
but can be so unreliable, and forgetting is critical for sanity. The way we
live now does not help – Alzheimer Disease (AD) is on the rise; it is the most feared disease of
old age. Join me to explore how the
brain constructs/retains/alters memories. Learn how AD develops and that
self-help is the best cure. Sleep, diet
and exercise are most important for good
mental and physical wellbeing;
‘blue-zone’ communities have largely avoided chronic diseases afflicting
the modern world – including AD. Much can be learnt from how they live. </span></span></i></p><p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">***************************************************</span></span></i></p><p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">In the following, I am publishing the slides used for the course. The course material was roughly divided in four parts:</span></span></i></p><p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">1. Structure and function of the human brain </span></span></i></p><p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">2. Memory </span></span></i></p><p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">3. Ageing Brain and Alzheimer's Disease </span></span></i></p><p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">4. Well being in older age (with particular emphasis on <b>sleep</b>)</span></span></i></p><p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">***************************************************</span></span></i></p><p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;">Please click on a slide to see its full-page view.</span></span></i></p><p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></i></p><p class="MsoNormal"><i><span lang="EN-US" style="mso-ansi-language: EN-US;"></span></i></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><i><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRxRM6sCiLl8rdHRlyv4KKhoSBQH1gDo5Hefrgh6jBogSdA7N9oUYs-tlCgW4ihUADplDGBMyUHhYeH9JiUNNC9MtJZWPkNx4QIubpUoUvvXld-CS-GOtLtA1TptlaXv8-XZ987stEDGflNUEVs2Wqn-JHaGuIr4PqCCvjRIIJmtYantWfjYp6Y-6rvE0/s1280/Slide1.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; 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text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiS1gbMYhQvK7b6KGZVKxoZdcIlCF_y9kHRmFz30Rhk96idjAKM7SiLb1YWhi72jls0hWfE6aHAsSKcZkQPHFcjP0pUQXF4YZ6D7zZfRQb8zU_VRvlPh4hBZfcZ6Hj73cbj3qgqRXkPIwtcGwLf3fzRLqSaYen-3KATxGodVOmCRTLwafPPbQMxUyRoVUo/s1280/Slide84.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiS1gbMYhQvK7b6KGZVKxoZdcIlCF_y9kHRmFz30Rhk96idjAKM7SiLb1YWhi72jls0hWfE6aHAsSKcZkQPHFcjP0pUQXF4YZ6D7zZfRQb8zU_VRvlPh4hBZfcZ6Hj73cbj3qgqRXkPIwtcGwLf3fzRLqSaYen-3KATxGodVOmCRTLwafPPbQMxUyRoVUo/w640-h360/Slide84.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhO_nWhzHVAwDISYZE6_fwFUlxsQ6ZJeXmPln0awMt-_PlTmwChIEnE6mHD16vdvqTaCP9rm9aYAnvY2IFbt90mqA8cyIUn51HxPl8k04iSs8KQ8dxMPJpyYp_gptDA0Hmzd2xLVuYTliXySy0NXvxb9b1bKwjgWAVCQvYb00w4H2nn01UQeJjETzzc8iA/s1280/Slide85.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhO_nWhzHVAwDISYZE6_fwFUlxsQ6ZJeXmPln0awMt-_PlTmwChIEnE6mHD16vdvqTaCP9rm9aYAnvY2IFbt90mqA8cyIUn51HxPl8k04iSs8KQ8dxMPJpyYp_gptDA0Hmzd2xLVuYTliXySy0NXvxb9b1bKwjgWAVCQvYb00w4H2nn01UQeJjETzzc8iA/w640-h360/Slide85.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhE6KnKYVByplSHAiXpQHP6gCfrVX-_RpUwQWQ9offUWdf8hxrprJPjXCNkAWo7wY3ZX0Ng24-ER5Bm9La2ejK8AK8ANyM_ZofP5QiLARmJEQ8M8b8445vG4kdclwGwlGXdR4ClDSnU_z0qLPC9-0QAclWKWzgXUeRxydh6yIAVzRnJAmO9aPDYShECSE0/s1280/Slide86.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhE6KnKYVByplSHAiXpQHP6gCfrVX-_RpUwQWQ9offUWdf8hxrprJPjXCNkAWo7wY3ZX0Ng24-ER5Bm9La2ejK8AK8ANyM_ZofP5QiLARmJEQ8M8b8445vG4kdclwGwlGXdR4ClDSnU_z0qLPC9-0QAclWKWzgXUeRxydh6yIAVzRnJAmO9aPDYShECSE0/w640-h360/Slide86.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div>What I have tried to do here is to discuss the anatomy of the brain -- how different parts of the brain interact with each other with their particular functionalities. The material above is sufficient to understand how the brain senses the world outside and looks after the welfare of the body.</div><div><br /></div><div>Some of the pictures I have used could be subject to copyright - I am happy to acknowledge the copyright in the best way possible if the holder can contact me at <span style="color: red;">ektalks@yahoo.co.uk</span> It may be that I have to remove one or more figures if the copyright holder does not allow me to retain them in this public service blog. </div><div><br /></div><div><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: arial; font-size: large;">The next part (Part 2) of the course deals with memories and may be accessed <a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2023/12/our-brains-memories-alzheimers-ad-how_31.html" target="_blank">HERE</a>. </span></div><div><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2024/01/our-brains-memories-alzheimers-ad-how.html" target="_blank">Part 3 of the course (Alzheimer's Disease) may be accessed here</a></span></div><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2024/01/part-4-of-4-our-brains-memories.html" target="_blank">Part 4 of the course (Well Being in Old Age) may be accessed here</a></span></div>Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-656274836058069289.post-59859826910304315442023-05-29T09:01:00.002+01:002023-05-29T09:05:25.646+01:00Albert Einstein - Family Tree Over Seven Generations<p><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;"> In my </span></span><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2021/12/slides-for-course-on-life-and-work-of_75.html" target="_blank">Albert Einstein</a> lectures at Strathclyde University in November 2021, I had constructed a seven generational family tree for the great scientist. The family tree was included in the slides that I had published. However, it is felt that a short blog just giving Einstein's family tree might be a good idea. I am doing so in the following - the full text of the lectures (3 hours) could be accessed on the link <a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2021/12/slides-for-course-on-life-and-work-of_75.html" target="_blank">here</a>. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Please click on the slide to view the full page image:</span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzEfuOsDzzjHFRpkGo7q07MdXV3_A0kUTQXXRig5PycEl6B8ZuyhhEHHcpEpq3Y8M8g8984UfWy8jLPyyNIa8s7gqxqCfmxQ505dU3q3BagAYYrmTuTtA5g_Fvi3qdjLXMxKzZ4Sdxeh--VhJx0hSCsz-ToQ22KcLjPOnGmZaQvLSSmeUJwq0cT3o7/s960/Einstein%20Family%20Tree%20May%202023%20JPEG.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="960" height="300" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjzEfuOsDzzjHFRpkGo7q07MdXV3_A0kUTQXXRig5PycEl6B8ZuyhhEHHcpEpq3Y8M8g8984UfWy8jLPyyNIa8s7gqxqCfmxQ505dU3q3BagAYYrmTuTtA5g_Fvi3qdjLXMxKzZ4Sdxeh--VhJx0hSCsz-ToQ22KcLjPOnGmZaQvLSSmeUJwq0cT3o7/w400-h300/Einstein%20Family%20Tree%20May%202023%20JPEG.jpg" width="400" /></a></div><br /><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">The family tree was constructed by collecting material available on the internet. I was careful in getting details correct by lot of cross-checks, but it is possible that some error might have found its way in!</span><p></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Please let me know (ektalks@yahoo.co.uk) or through comments if a correction is required. Thank you.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;">(</span><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;">https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2021/12/slides-for-course-on-life-and-work-of_75.html)</span></p>Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-656274836058069289.post-68629550357320848452021-12-11T18:12:00.004+00:002022-03-20T08:51:14.798+00:00Talk on Life and Work of Albert Einstein at CLL, Strathclyde University, Scotland (November 2021)<p> <span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;">In the following, I am publishing the slides of my lectures on the</span><span style="font-family: verdana;"> </span><i style="font-family: verdana;">Life and Work of Albert Einstein</i><span style="font-family: verdana;"> </span><span style="font-family: verdana;">(via ZOOM) at the Centre for Lifelong Learning, Strathclyde University. I had an excellent audience who were motivated to learn about Einstein - one of the most brilliant minds of all times.</span><span style="font-family: verdana;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><b style="color: red;"><u>Click on a slide to view its full screen image. </u></b></span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">The slides detail the subject material as presented in the lectures (3 hours in total) - of course, details of my presentation/discussion are missing, but I hope this material will be useful in understanding the contribution that Einstein made in the development of many aspects of natural philosophy. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">The present course was specifically prepared for students who do not necessarily have a good science background. A somewhat more advanced course was given at Strathclyde University and in East Kilbride Technology Park a few years ago. At the end of this publication, I provide links to the slides for the much more detailed course (8 hours).</span></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjlwCQA1Nk54zwA17SSbae9Oufl3GOzgbrh1y_BcI5pZf8W0zOYj6DjY4F-5aXC28btWYi6vxO709z4insH7hHFxDWy_13JUNwv4IChSYVyzyAmymFhzpPyi7UyYRTWBytEmRBP1v8e4Wd3_nGdVdsWSYwutMq9VrhO8i2BJ5PIQliIYj8yBhpx4kvJ=s960" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="960" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjlwCQA1Nk54zwA17SSbae9Oufl3GOzgbrh1y_BcI5pZf8W0zOYj6DjY4F-5aXC28btWYi6vxO709z4insH7hHFxDWy_13JUNwv4IChSYVyzyAmymFhzpPyi7UyYRTWBytEmRBP1v8e4Wd3_nGdVdsWSYwutMq9VrhO8i2BJ5PIQliIYj8yBhpx4kvJ=s320" width="320" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhMUL1NXKMDR59WTZyboUhlHJCgBak0dSj7ltvWCGgYJiud8phfh3xSjmyXc0R_i5yq0FG4qiJic4l5g3a3n_670wtQ0QWbR-fUHiYQsgqKQtZYk2gpifz1nnRF2gtYv6Zq2bFoxWSNS0IFFB9aNW87j_YfBS6WflDG8Zi9UtlFFlGZBO_w4mvf6Y56=s960" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="960" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhMUL1NXKMDR59WTZyboUhlHJCgBak0dSj7ltvWCGgYJiud8phfh3xSjmyXc0R_i5yq0FG4qiJic4l5g3a3n_670wtQ0QWbR-fUHiYQsgqKQtZYk2gpifz1nnRF2gtYv6Zq2bFoxWSNS0IFFB9aNW87j_YfBS6WflDG8Zi9UtlFFlGZBO_w4mvf6Y56=s320" width="320" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEg78ovc6bDT9UHdb2o8dPASvPV3a_elLd6N8GHhaTgBhuB6EeenuRCaGcjyTQActciO-6vko9MKr7flP-c8--X38kLFHjP0RI_neE2RRcByiuUle7bf1WPOKK3kaPQMtPRpErUIy3tIjtI8jGTKc_kCOmA5U4hGyhROdw3JdfoNyvHc8LAo-HG-tcyB=s960" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="960" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEg78ovc6bDT9UHdb2o8dPASvPV3a_elLd6N8GHhaTgBhuB6EeenuRCaGcjyTQActciO-6vko9MKr7flP-c8--X38kLFHjP0RI_neE2RRcByiuUle7bf1WPOKK3kaPQMtPRpErUIy3tIjtI8jGTKc_kCOmA5U4hGyhROdw3JdfoNyvHc8LAo-HG-tcyB=s320" width="320" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; 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text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhiQLqwPUrzoB23ksga_psPygCARMrcnt2eO4YDQWFdUEjt18R9tFQJkVHQAKa41CQpzKQ5P94GfpDPqfCIRi-aFwvtFLPGsilcDxF5wi2FBXcZrehPKYB1ERgXCt_a4airnzRChpZnGBwXafc0H-gikVhZ6ePIJcWOje-gR92rZew9lSC1zDRdQK7-=s960" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="960" height="240" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhiQLqwPUrzoB23ksga_psPygCARMrcnt2eO4YDQWFdUEjt18R9tFQJkVHQAKa41CQpzKQ5P94GfpDPqfCIRi-aFwvtFLPGsilcDxF5wi2FBXcZrehPKYB1ERgXCt_a4airnzRChpZnGBwXafc0H-gikVhZ6ePIJcWOje-gR92rZew9lSC1zDRdQK7-=s320" width="320" /></a></div><br /><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">The above slides complete the presentation of the course at CLL in October/November 2021. </span><p></p><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">A more detailed discussion of life and work of Einstein may be found through the following links:</span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2016/02/gravitational-waves-theory-of-general.html" target="_blank">Gravitational Waves and Black Holes</a> (<a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2017/10/orbital-period-decrease-of-binary.html" target="_blank">see also</a>)</span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span face="arial, helvetica, sans-serif" style="background-color: #f6f6f6; font-size: large;">In the following I provide links to my talks at the Life Long Learning Centre at the University of Strathclyde and also at East Kilbride James Watt Auditorium. The talks are suitable for most people with a school background in science and were prepared to celebrate Albert Einstein's life and work. </span><br style="background-color: #f6f6f6; font-family: "Trebuchet MS", Trebuchet, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;" /><span face="arial, helvetica, sans-serif" style="background-color: #f6f6f6; font-size: large;">Please click on the lines below to see the slides of the talk</span><br style="background-color: #f6f6f6; font-family: "Trebuchet MS", Trebuchet, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;" /><span face="arial, helvetica, sans-serif" style="background-color: #f6f6f6; font-size: large;"><br /></span><span face=""Trebuchet MS", Trebuchet, Verdana, sans-serif" style="background-color: #f6f6f6; font-size: 13px;"></span><br style="background-color: #f6f6f6; font-family: "Trebuchet MS", Trebuchet, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;" /><h3 class="post-title entry-title" itemprop="name" style="background-color: #f6f6f6; color: #9e5205; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 20.8px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; letter-spacing: -1px; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><a href="http://ektalks.blogspot.co.uk/2015/11/special-theory-of-relativity-part-1.html" style="color: #9e5205;">Special Theory of Relativity (Part 1) - a Course for the 'Inquisitive' Layman</a></h3><div style="background-color: #f6f6f6; font-family: "Trebuchet MS", Trebuchet, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><br /></div><div style="background-color: #f6f6f6; font-family: "Trebuchet MS", Trebuchet, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><h3 class="post-title entry-title" itemprop="name" style="color: #9e5205; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 20.8px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; letter-spacing: -1px; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><a href="http://ektalks.blogspot.co.uk/2015/11/special-theory-of-relativity-part-2.html" style="color: #9e5205;">Special Theory of Relativity (Part 2) - a Course for the 'Inquisitive' Layman</a></h3></div><div style="background-color: #f6f6f6; font-family: "Trebuchet MS", Trebuchet, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><br /></div><div style="background-color: #f6f6f6; font-family: "Trebuchet MS", Trebuchet, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><h3 class="post-title entry-title" itemprop="name" style="color: #9e5205; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 20.8px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; letter-spacing: -1px; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2015/11/general-theory-of-relativity-part-1.html" style="color: #9e5205;" target="_blank">General Theory of Relativity (Part 1) - a Course for the 'Inquisitive' Layman</a></h3></div><div style="background-color: #f6f6f6; font-family: "Trebuchet MS", Trebuchet, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><br /></div><div style="background-color: #f6f6f6; font-family: "Trebuchet MS", Trebuchet, Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 13px;"><h3 class="post-title entry-title" itemprop="name" style="color: #9e5205; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 20.8px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; letter-spacing: -1px; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><a href="http://ektalks.blogspot.co.uk/2015/11/general-theory-of-relativity-part-2.html" style="color: #9e5205;">General Theory of Relativity (Part 2) - a Course for the 'Inquisitive' Layman</a></h3></div></div>Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-656274836058069289.post-43617878306908332732021-12-11T09:43:00.006+00:002022-03-20T08:53:18.098+00:00Life and Work of Sir Isaac Newton: Course at CLL, Strathclyde University, Scotland (October 2021)<p> <span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;">In the following, I am publishing the slides of my lectures on the</span><span style="font-family: verdana;"> </span><i style="font-family: verdana;">Life and Work of Isaac Newton</i><span style="font-family: verdana;"> </span><span style="font-family: verdana;">(via ZOOM) at the Centre for Lifelong Learning, Strathclyde University. I had an excellent audience who were motivated to learn about Newton - one of the most brilliant minds of all times.</span><span style="font-family: verdana;"> </span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><b style="color: red;"><u>Click on a slide to view its full screen image. </u></b></span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">The slides detail the subject material as presented in the lectures (3 hours in total) - of course, details of my presentation/discussion are missing, but I hope this material will be useful in understanding the contribution that Newton made in the development of many aspects of natural philosophy. The following slide summarizes it very well:</span></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhwnF1hbCLEt0XkGd9JeYQzzG202jMu8_cNNDPqsJRAVudE_0z0eiuGUBB1pzzDMIFAhr4QlPcSRsfNbMBKJcabHc2jEXVenkjbWChJGj7BgL1dROmJaj9zOMDRlTp2HDkpyX8NOUkpHQPVGepW3s_cGSGLowqX5IL93cuAL8UujOUYv8ADtYikFlgK=s1280" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhwnF1hbCLEt0XkGd9JeYQzzG202jMu8_cNNDPqsJRAVudE_0z0eiuGUBB1pzzDMIFAhr4QlPcSRsfNbMBKJcabHc2jEXVenkjbWChJGj7BgL1dROmJaj9zOMDRlTp2HDkpyX8NOUkpHQPVGepW3s_cGSGLowqX5IL93cuAL8UujOUYv8ADtYikFlgK=s320" width="320" /></a></div><p></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">You might also find <a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2019/12/isaac-newtontroubled-genius-1-family.html" target="_blank">an earlier (shorter) blog about Newton</a> useful.</span></p><p><b style="color: red; font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"></b></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b style="color: red; font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjskZ7PTyX8zqa_aIkwTvs2DCZ_E__hc_cNp-6PP9sfnCljfI1VaPfOyQk7lE3wfCXMnQ_VZoP2fScohNsTOocNl7zba9AnssMBjPodMmCfDWMBXlX2qV5BDJ35irTGtuwb1afouQ0hCyVGFqxSZv-4peoJVs-ZCp99P_U1dM0kJJYbJIYSp-lbgzAM=s1280" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjskZ7PTyX8zqa_aIkwTvs2DCZ_E__hc_cNp-6PP9sfnCljfI1VaPfOyQk7lE3wfCXMnQ_VZoP2fScohNsTOocNl7zba9AnssMBjPodMmCfDWMBXlX2qV5BDJ35irTGtuwb1afouQ0hCyVGFqxSZv-4peoJVs-ZCp99P_U1dM0kJJYbJIYSp-lbgzAM=s320" width="320" /></a></b></div><b style="color: red; font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgDjwNUGOYNpyASHssUSCfaxfATsDKTwz5-w32sY6A2XMps5nVxN7rlBFKOEvrrWSf0GkXY-GX7YcuufeGTUziwYtZPC3AH8zMHtbf-aRHyf28ea3Jyd0FW49ZZ3TiplihtXAqUgXIgCZr76XSuOI5JwENtExw9MaNU3f-QY4mU6CYvfkLhezoW5WhJ=s1280" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgDjwNUGOYNpyASHssUSCfaxfATsDKTwz5-w32sY6A2XMps5nVxN7rlBFKOEvrrWSf0GkXY-GX7YcuufeGTUziwYtZPC3AH8zMHtbf-aRHyf28ea3Jyd0FW49ZZ3TiplihtXAqUgXIgCZr76XSuOI5JwENtExw9MaNU3f-QY4mU6CYvfkLhezoW5WhJ=s320" width="320" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjlYu6U7b07YR2kGJlNwHbk5jv3SS0GOKVtpkePQad6w84lFc4OXWqjiUj8qj6YSTTEprCnI6allUmKVnvCJPle3XaK6-H7gltUv5Nrq_0ZLzBRAkVHMwPsOGAU8S2LojdGYGWKyvLc5orhR0L_vCv8t6Ta1LNZAyGHOiNx0VbeQDlQYfu-khxDvLem=s1280" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEjlYu6U7b07YR2kGJlNwHbk5jv3SS0GOKVtpkePQad6w84lFc4OXWqjiUj8qj6YSTTEprCnI6allUmKVnvCJPle3XaK6-H7gltUv5Nrq_0ZLzBRAkVHMwPsOGAU8S2LojdGYGWKyvLc5orhR0L_vCv8t6Ta1LNZAyGHOiNx0VbeQDlQYfu-khxDvLem=s320" width="320" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; 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margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiPztuKbR84-SNGIlt0QpD948KeLCg402TgBN9VmILXBVQADZIR9nKYxM6cFLo3YpBfAsJyHAiDyo-j4OiI3RMXQsP0X3OWII210jqHlo_eUQGYGuYemuVXeNTMQXWkmXzgXNmJcUF9FjgkdiXjmIwrWSFy_8cdQAi7v2Y-_frHAf1J7WpXdqgGWMKv=s320" width="320" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><br /><u><br /></u></b><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><br /><p></p><p><b style="color: red; font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><u><br /></u></b></p><p><b style="color: red; font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><u><br /></u></b></p>Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-656274836058069289.post-63465884660317730252021-12-10T20:48:00.002+00:002022-03-20T08:54:59.742+00:00Life and Work of Galileo Galilei: Lectures at CLL, Strathclyde University, Scotland (October 2021)<p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span>In the following, I am publishing the slides of my lectures on the <i>Life and Work of Galileo Galilei</i> (via ZOOM) at the Centre for Lifelong Learning, Strathclyde University. I had an excellent audience who were motivated to learn about Galileo who is rightly called <i>The Father of Modern Science</i>. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">The slides detail the subject material as presented in the lectures (3 hours in total) - of course, details of my presentation/discussion are missing, but I hope this material will be useful in understanding the contribution that Galileo made in the development of natural philosophy. </span></p><p><span style="color: red; font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><u>Click on a slide to view its full screen image. </u></b></span></p><p><span style="color: red; font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><u><br /></u></b></span></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhK9MNxS85-nYNtBGZ1QW5GKWWgj7M0HEE0ZTvqliGudhw6FXSOof-snbPDyzNWawrcaqNAi3Bd5Gj0-7HO-6rA16mjzHeZP7IL3ffKWaiMbkndwKSsFNd9NkXg-Tl9nWhIz_I_ODwvFcYdOOYxU9Ge36zQdS_HA9W815PXLmFjTRL8y3UyAt1P0h0Y=s1280" style="margin-left: 1em; 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font-size: large;"><br /></span><p></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"></span></p><p><span style="color: red; font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><u><br /></u></b></span></p>Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-656274836058069289.post-87585187315050699402021-12-09T16:59:00.003+00:002022-03-20T08:55:54.981+00:00PART 2: Climate Change Course at CLL, Strathclyde University, Scotland (October - November 2021)<p><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">For Part 1 (first half) of the course, please click <a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2021/12/slides-part-1-relating-to-climate.html" target="_blank">here</a>. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Slides for the second half of the course are presented below:</span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b style="color: red;"><u>Click on a slide to view its full screen image. </u></b></span></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; 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font-size: large;">I hope that you have found the slides useful. </span><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"> Climate Change is an evolving subject and the problems are by no means near a solution. COP26 was useful but work has only just started. </span><p></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Interesting times ahead... </span></p>Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-656274836058069289.post-11761391396886320692021-12-09T16:23:00.002+00:002022-03-20T08:56:29.684+00:00PART 1: Climate Change Course at CLL, Strathclyde University, Scotland (October - November 2021)<p> <span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">In the following, I am publishing the slides of my lectures on Climate Change (via ZOOM) at the Centre for Lifelong Learning, Strathclyde University. I had an excellent audience who were motivated to learn about this important subject. The course was planned to coincide with COP26 in Glasgow - this made the subject even more topical and generated a lot of interest and questions. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">The slides detail the subject material as presented in the lectures (9 hours in total) - of course, details of my presentation/discussion are missing but I hope this material will be a useful reference in understanding the science and the issues relating to climate change. More details may be found on individual topics in my blogs published on this website in previous years.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2021/12/slides-part-2-relating-to-climate.html" target="_blank">Slides for Part 2 of the course may be seen here.</a></span></p><p><span style="color: red; font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><u>Click on a slide to view its full screen image. </u></b></span></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgtGFdPOZ6mB6G_Tz07nYuRNkU0vSlTa12YFstMC4olcdx9YBHMX6_fGKtHojk75fPhCFmwhYUB6KH7-Lt7CNq3gcs9fk26AEJthO3_PpY5oHEszzrqzvmCZEuiK__H1VfsenfRttn_uGdtOMMPorVHoieWk9N2UeyWG6iuE01mU1-CMQqEsblZ8Wmj=s1280" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><br /><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEgtGFdPOZ6mB6G_Tz07nYuRNkU0vSlTa12YFstMC4olcdx9YBHMX6_fGKtHojk75fPhCFmwhYUB6KH7-Lt7CNq3gcs9fk26AEJthO3_PpY5oHEszzrqzvmCZEuiK__H1VfsenfRttn_uGdtOMMPorVHoieWk9N2UeyWG6iuE01mU1-CMQqEsblZ8Wmj=s320" width="320" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; 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text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhrsasJojdulKoVa8UuyzWqJ_UWkW_YoXUgh-AfCSKjwonPHN4EHcagbRiuLGuDoODJ7tARHpjUihTkilZRR4uzX8e-ddRjanoUJEX33xBHISmwrUYyZcxrqi4--qg-UmgJnkhkV91Zzx1rBtRgVyBQDQNQMirxUIpkflnSNIcD1gFc1ZODemMe_apG=s1280" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhrsasJojdulKoVa8UuyzWqJ_UWkW_YoXUgh-AfCSKjwonPHN4EHcagbRiuLGuDoODJ7tARHpjUihTkilZRR4uzX8e-ddRjanoUJEX33xBHISmwrUYyZcxrqi4--qg-UmgJnkhkV91Zzx1rBtRgVyBQDQNQMirxUIpkflnSNIcD1gFc1ZODemMe_apG=s320" width="320" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhkEoYjoXv_Rdnb0-E2Z7iI7BD3hBbHRF-DN3CHW3b0DjKkhK8-A2Mt2YERyHW8cnrGwczAggS5XXv5aCpXHaPGksbWlvDTj1lBEQrYLMkzOTh6ZoBg0sVAvdDC9J9mQrKePH_iooWoDYOH6xReCsnzupgzg5wg1tyWfqlwR62khAdyp4nky6ffNBMH=s1280" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="180" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEhkEoYjoXv_Rdnb0-E2Z7iI7BD3hBbHRF-DN3CHW3b0DjKkhK8-A2Mt2YERyHW8cnrGwczAggS5XXv5aCpXHaPGksbWlvDTj1lBEQrYLMkzOTh6ZoBg0sVAvdDC9J9mQrKePH_iooWoDYOH6xReCsnzupgzg5wg1tyWfqlwR62khAdyp4nky6ffNBMH=s320" width="320" /></a></div><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div>Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-656274836058069289.post-89100142853712337402021-09-18T08:47:00.002+01:002021-09-18T08:47:32.618+01:00q = sqrt(N+k) - sqrt(N-k); An Interesting Mathematical problem: Maths is Fun<p> <i style="background-color: #f6f6f6; font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><span style="color: red;"><a href="http://ektalks.blogspot.co.uk/2015/11/blogger-profile-ravi-singhal.html" style="color: #de7008;">Blog Contents and Who am I?</a></span></i></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">After publishing my blog yesterday on an interesting mathematical problem, I realized that a simple variation of the problem is equally interesting and worth publishing too. This I do in the following.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">(Click on the slide to see its full page image)</span></p><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrpwWrz2GwhHwNCp21jmaTyRClpHbhf17s0LfwmyJX-3yZ_wwzkgqAhePj17OGUKzztFG0tEj7TE2ULtcPy-q_LTjFCkk4vQ10rx5fN8cLPJGp8djPmdX2wPv6-UvWZ-PsOFdsY_FSEKE/s1280/slide+1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrpwWrz2GwhHwNCp21jmaTyRClpHbhf17s0LfwmyJX-3yZ_wwzkgqAhePj17OGUKzztFG0tEj7TE2ULtcPy-q_LTjFCkk4vQ10rx5fN8cLPJGp8djPmdX2wPv6-UvWZ-PsOFdsY_FSEKE/w640-h360/slide+1.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMspTXA0fjgMKViuK1E3ZptPXWydtL3uHehNdC5dXvhS1Vlw9TjyUJ4sjKd6IQWnVhpfp2VOE7SxKCCbi1eYHf9kmCt_3RLlqAa-ZIqZ5HZ_FeO09mzDhM1hmMVPZ-xipXSJYx-u-tKL0/s1280/slide+2.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMspTXA0fjgMKViuK1E3ZptPXWydtL3uHehNdC5dXvhS1Vlw9TjyUJ4sjKd6IQWnVhpfp2VOE7SxKCCbi1eYHf9kmCt_3RLlqAa-ZIqZ5HZ_FeO09mzDhM1hmMVPZ-xipXSJYx-u-tKL0/w640-h360/slide+2.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><i>Equations 3, 4 and 5 provide the full solution of the problem. Only even values of q are possible and their range is defined by eqns. 3 and 4. Eqn.5 may then be used to calculate the corresponding values of k<span style="text-align: center;">. </span></i></span><p></p><p></p><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">The next slide shows the allowed values of <i>q.</i></span></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEinYB5BWAYJwPonqJAG9iEAx9dTMltnDGJiVcZDu1OePDX0yj_QIvJWaLkW4fQiVCng8uYGWPpvM3P7JWNaH-RTacJ9ygCvI4GTlehzIJpdFVEvNA4w6_rFVXzHAghbJ_Q203ycX68N7y0/s1280/slide+3.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEinYB5BWAYJwPonqJAG9iEAx9dTMltnDGJiVcZDu1OePDX0yj_QIvJWaLkW4fQiVCng8uYGWPpvM3P7JWNaH-RTacJ9ygCvI4GTlehzIJpdFVEvNA4w6_rFVXzHAghbJ_Q203ycX68N7y0/w640-h360/slide+3.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span style="text-align: left;">The range of </span><i style="text-align: left;">q</i><span style="text-align: left;"> is seen to be quite small - in fact for </span><i style="text-align: left;">N</i><span style="text-align: left;"> < 50, the number of allowed </span><i style="text-align: left;">q</i><span style="text-align: left;"> values is 4 but increases as N gets bigger . </span></span></div></div><p></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">For example, for <i>N</i> = 30, <i>q</i>(min) = 0 and <i>q</i>(max) = 7.75. Since <i>q</i> is an even integer, only possible values of <i>q</i> are 2, 4 and 6. The corresponding values of <i>k</i> are (use eqn.5) 10.77, 20.40 and 27.50. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><u>Final Word:</u></b> I find the problem to be very instructive - particularly, it demonstrates that some serious conclusions may be obtained by initial observations of the problem. For example, by looking at the expression in eqn.1, we could establish the range of <i>q</i> values - later confirmed by the general analysis. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Plotting a graph of the results is also very useful as this provides a wholesome view of the results obtained.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">I hope that you enjoyed our little excursion and agree that 'Maths is Fun'.</span></p>Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-656274836058069289.post-66216732641884880622021-09-17T09:00:00.003+01:002021-09-18T08:48:22.003+01:00p = sqrt(N+k) + sqrt(N-k); An Interesting Mathematical problem: Maths is Fun<p> <i style="background-color: #f6f6f6; font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><span style="color: red;"><a href="http://ektalks.blogspot.co.uk/2015/11/blogger-profile-ravi-singhal.html" style="color: #de7008;">Blog Contents and Who am I?</a></span></i></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Recently, I came across an interesting mathematical problem on the internet that I thought could be generalised to provide much greater insight into how mathematics works. The problem requires use of school level maths and I found it great fun to work on. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">(Click on the slide to see its full page image)</span></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEixO8KTm72Zf-jOnUgGbV_aTkGl3CFVcy_Dci0861RwdJwYaufl9yTXL09yPZvopxXrxT8wnEtbopguQTCccEhkK4i88Swv_TXOksUw-W22fHhc2_XLPrcizO5krr2tSU-yj76JEIT3h7k/s1280/slide+3+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEixO8KTm72Zf-jOnUgGbV_aTkGl3CFVcy_Dci0861RwdJwYaufl9yTXL09yPZvopxXrxT8wnEtbopguQTCccEhkK4i88Swv_TXOksUw-W22fHhc2_XLPrcizO5krr2tSU-yj76JEIT3h7k/w640-h360/slide+3+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKjDQS9Ne0V1IC02WGBRsSIAajiKCxgEX_CHDj6nsLMT_NY5eUv0IlYyZUAOVhhG9_6nbctTSMoo6bQwXaSfRemPgoldyZD0JrFxXWpHl_inqTFN0ZhPnul-TxNr5Ct_2UDd8vKKB1FQk/s1280/slide+1+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiKjDQS9Ne0V1IC02WGBRsSIAajiKCxgEX_CHDj6nsLMT_NY5eUv0IlYyZUAOVhhG9_6nbctTSMoo6bQwXaSfRemPgoldyZD0JrFxXWpHl_inqTFN0ZhPnul-TxNr5Ct_2UDd8vKKB1FQk/w640-h360/slide+1+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><i>Equations 3, 4 and 5 provide the full solution of the problem. Only even values of p are possible and their range is defined by eqns. 3 and 4. Eqn.5 may then be used to calculate the corresponding values of k<span style="text-align: center;">. </span></i></span><p></p><p></p><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">The next slide shows the allowed values of <i>p.</i></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiu5769_GpPAVdEwHGnHUzaCX665LQiV7nhYJ5XY4Ccr64XJgBXyhS9vaUxAU2qlimZ-IlG0yJrREzCYT8G1CJ4Y4JU1qPHhN3FCR35PZEpzrr0pzkU9o4eU5dXxJLZPiKZ28nFiOMU_Ss/s1280/slide+4.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiu5769_GpPAVdEwHGnHUzaCX665LQiV7nhYJ5XY4Ccr64XJgBXyhS9vaUxAU2qlimZ-IlG0yJrREzCYT8G1CJ4Y4JU1qPHhN3FCR35PZEpzrr0pzkU9o4eU5dXxJLZPiKZ28nFiOMU_Ss/w640-h360/slide+4.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana; text-align: left;">The range of </span><i style="font-family: verdana; text-align: left;">p</i><span style="font-family: verdana; text-align: left;"> is seen to be quite small - in fact for </span><i style="font-family: verdana; text-align: left;">N</i><span style="font-family: verdana; text-align: left;"> < 200, the number of allowed </span><i style="font-family: verdana; text-align: left;">p</i><span style="font-family: verdana; text-align: left;"> values are less than four. </span></span><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large; text-align: left;"> </span></div></div><p></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">For example, for <i>N</i> = 80, <i>p</i>(min) = 12.65 and <i>p</i>(max) = 17.89. Since <i>p</i> is an even integer, only possible values of <i>p</i> are 14 and 16. The corresponding values of <i>k</i> are (use eqn.5) 77.95 and 64. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><u>Final Word:</u></b> I find the problem to be very instructive - particularly, it demonstrates that some serious conclusions may be obtained by initial observations of the problem. For example, by looking at the expression in eqn.1, we could establish the range of <i>p</i> values - later confirmed by the general analysis. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Plotting a graph of the results is also very useful as this provides a wholesome view of the results obtained.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">I hope that you enjoyed our little excursion and agree that 'Maths is Fun'.</span></p>Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-656274836058069289.post-45349732683278981282021-04-11T22:14:00.004+01:002021-11-02T22:26:29.749+00:00Water and Carbon di-Oxide are the Two Most Important Molecules in Determining Earth's Energy Budget but CO2 Levels Control the Amount of Water in the Atmosphere and hence the Global Temperature <p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"> <i style="background-color: #f6f6f6;"><span style="color: red;"><a href="http://ektalks.blogspot.co.uk/2015/11/blogger-profile-ravi-singhal.html" style="color: #de7008;">Blog Contents and Who am I?</a></span></i></span></p><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: #f6f6f6;"><i><u>Click on a slide to view its fulll page image</u></i></span></span></p><p><u style="color: red; font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Scope of This Post:</u><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">The role of water and carbon di-oxide (CO₂) - the two main actors - in global warming has generated much controversy and confusion. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">The subject of global warming (or climate change) is controversial because </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">(a) the science is complex, </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">(b) most serious damage won't be felt for a few decades,</span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">(c) outcomes depend on what actions are taken <i>now</i> and in the <i>near future;</i></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">(d) The situation is further compounded by deliberate attempts by vested interests actively spreading misinformation. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">This post is prepared at two levels; </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u><span style="color: #2b00fe;">The first part is suitable as an outreach feature</span></u> where I explain that while water vapour is responsible for the greatest amount of warming, changes in the atmospheric concentration of CO₂, through feedback loops, determine the amount of water in the atmosphere and thus control the extent of the greenhouse effect - </span><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><a href="doi:10.3402/tellusb.v65i0.19734" target="_blank">CO₂ is the control knob</a>. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">In part 2, we shall compare the role of water and CO₂ in global warming in more detail. The science of how radiation energy interacts with water and CO₂ is well understood; however, predictions of global climate change still suffer from an incomplete understanding of the ways in which earth's feedback loops respond to changes brought about by changing concentrations of the greenhouse gases (GHGs). Our understanding of such feedbacks has greatly improved over the past few decades. Most outcomes point to the predictions erring on the side of caution - many observations point to a more severe climate change than predicted. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span style="color: red;"><u><span><span><span style="font-weight: bold;">Part 1</span><span><b>: </b></span></span></span><span><b>CO₂ is the Control Knob:</b></span></u></span><span> The earth receives radiation energy from the Sun over a range of wavelengths. In turn, the earth radiates infra-red radiation from its surface. (<i>See Appendix for discussion of black-body radiation</i>). The earth's atmosphere acts like a blanket in preventing some of the radiation emitted by the earth from escaping to outer space. Our planet is 33⁰C warmer than it would be without the atmosphere - <i>so-called greenhouse effect (without the atmosphere, earth's mean temperature will be -</i>18⁰C<i>)</i></span><span><span>. </span></span><span><span>(For background reading please see: </span></span><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2019/12/making-sense-of-our-climate-change-3.html" style="background-color: #f6f6f6; letter-spacing: -1px;" target="_blank">Making Sense of our Climate Change: 3. The Science of Global Warming</a><span style="background-color: #f6f6f6; color: #9e5205; letter-spacing: -1px;">)</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span><span><span>Water vapour is the most abundant (~ 1%) heat-trapping gas in the atmosphere and detailed s</span></span></span>cientific analysis confirms that it <span><span><span>keeps the earth warmer by about 20</span></span></span>⁰C (responsible for about 60% of the greenhouse effect). CO₂ (~0.04%) and other greenhouse gases (GHGs) contribute about 25%. There is some remaining uncertainty in the role of clouds, but they are deemed to trap about 15% of the earth's radiation from escaping into space. </span></p><p><span><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">There are three points to note: </span></span></p><p><span><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">(1) <u>Water vapour is a condensable gas</u> - its amount in the atmosphere is fixed by the earth's temperature - any excess water vapour returns to earth via rain or snow within a short time period of a few days. Other GHGs stay in the atmosphere for much longer (CO₂ stays for several hundred years) and, unlike water, their amounts and hence the warming effects accumulate independent of conditions on earth. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span>(2) <u>Most water in the atmosphere is found in the first 3 km.</u> 99% of atmospheric water is found in the troposphere - below about 12 km altitude (<span>see slide A7 in the appendix</span>). </span>CO₂ and other GHGs mix much more uniformly throughout the atmosphere. <i>Water plays a minor role in the absorption of outgoing radiation above the troposphere - for altitudes from about 12 to 100 km. </i></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span>(3) <u>Water vapour does not absorb outgoing radiation in the wavelength range from </u></span><u>8 to 15 microns </u>while CO₂ and O₃ have strong absorption bands in this range. To a good extent, water vapour and other GHGs complement each other in trapping outgoing radiation in different parts of the spectrum. </span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><i><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Before we started burning fossil fuels in large quantities, atmospheric water vapour provided (and continues to provide) a steady contribution to warming by trapping ~60% of the radiation emitted by the earth. The increase in atmospheric</span></i></span></span><i><span style="color: #2b00fe;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"> greenhouse gases - </span></span><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">CO₂, </span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;">CH₄ & N₂O - over the past 200 years has </span></span></span></i><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><i><span style="color: #2b00fe;">changed the dynamics of the absorption of outgoing infra-red (IR) radiation. To a large extent, this increase has been responsible for mediating additional global warming that we are witnessing today.</span></i> </span></span><i><span style="color: #2b00fe;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;">CO₂ is more abundant and longer lasting than other GHGs and is the most important influence in the observed <u>additional warming over historic levels</u> during the past several decades.</span></span></span></i></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span>However, many news articles, without mentioning the significant role of water vapour, claim that c</span><span>arbon di-oxide (CO₂) is the most important GHG and convey the impression that </span><span>CO₂</span> alone is responsible for global warming. This is obviously not correct. The unfortunate misrepresentation has engendered increased scepticism about climate change. In turn, this has made it more difficult for the public and politicians to accept the highly damaging long-term predictions based on sound scientific analysis and take effective timely actions. It is important that the science of global warming is shared more accurately with the wider public whose lives will be seriously impacted in not too distant future .</span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">The science of how radiation interacts with atmospheric constituents is well understood. Also, since 1969 satellites and ground based instruments have been providing good quality observational data. It is possible to calculate, with good confidence, how the earth energy budget looks like (<span style="color: #cc0000;">slide A4</span>), and <i>how it might be affected by changes in the concentration of particular atmospheric constituents.</i> Some uncertainty remains about the contribution of clouds - cloud cover is highly changeable and depending on their type, clouds can cause warming (by trapping earth's outgoing radiation) or cooling (by reflecting Sun's incoming radiation back to space). <a href="https://e360.yale.edu/features/why-clouds-are-the-key-to-new-troubling-projections-on-warming" target="_blank">On the global level, it is estimated that the two effects roughly cancel each other</a> with the clouds causing a small amount of net cooling. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u style="color: red; font-weight: bold;">The Three Actors:</u> Earth's temperature is dertermined by three actors - The Sun, the Earth and the atmosphere. </span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><b><u>The Sun</u></b> is the primary source of all energy and the <u>t</u>op of <u>E</u>arth's <u>a</u>tmosphere (TOA) <a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/solar-radiation" target="_blank">receives energy from the Sun at a rate</a> of 1362 </span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;">Wm⁻² </span><span style="font-family: verdana;">(Watt per meter squared) in the wavelength range from 0.15 to 4 µm with a maximum around 0.5 </span><span style="font-family: verdana;">µm (1 </span><span style="font-family: verdana;">µm = 10</span><span style="font-family: verdana;">⁻⁶ m = 1000 nm). Over the past 50 years, <a href="Remote Sens. 2017, 9, 1143" target="_blank">total solar irradiance, measured at TOA, has been constant to within 1 Wm⁻².</a></span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;">On a clear day, 40% of the solar radiation </span><span style="font-family: verdana;">received at the earth's surface is visible radiation (0.4 to 0.7 </span><span style="font-family: verdana;">µm) while 51% is infra-red (IR) in the spectral range 0.7 to 4 </span><span style="font-family: verdana;">µm. Most of the ultraviolet (< 0.4 </span><span style="font-family: verdana;">µm) radiation is absorbed by ozone in the stratosphere. We shall call the Sun's radiation (wavelength < 4 </span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;">µm)</span><span style="font-family: verdana;"> the short-wave radiation (SWR). </span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><span><span style="font-family: verdana;"><u style="font-weight: bold;">The Earth</u> warms by receiving SWR but radiates energy in the IR between 2 and 70 </span><span style="font-family: verdana;">µm wavelength range with a maximum around 10 </span><span style="font-family: verdana;">µm. On its way to outer space, energy radiated from the earth passes through the atmosphere and interacts with its constituents. We shall call the radiation emitted by the earth (wavelength > 4 </span></span><span style="font-family: verdana;">µm)</span><span style="font-family: verdana;"> the long-wave radiation (LWR). </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u style="font-weight: bold;">The Atmosphere</u><span> <a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2015/07/climate-change-atmosphere-and.html" target="_blank">is a collection of stratified gases and extends to an altitude of roughly 100 km above the earth's surface</a> (<span>see slide A7</span>). It plays a complex role in interacting with SWR and LWR - gaseous layers reflect, absorb, re-radiate the radiation passing through the atmosphere. Interactions in the atmosphere comletely change the nature and amount of longwave radiation going to outer space - this is discussed next.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span style="color: red;"><u style="font-weight: bold;">Earth's Energy (Radiation) Budget:</u> </span>The following slides show what happens to the incoming radiation from the Sun and outgoing radiation from the Earth and the role of the atmosphere. Only a small fraction of the earth's radiation (mainly in the atmospheric window from 8 to 14 micron) goes directly to space - almost 90% is first absorbed by the atmosphere which then emits it in all directions (see <span>slide 2 and A4)</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><u>Slide 1:</u> </b> </span></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgOKInFQCdFDcsrXoMi8yS-cjV3XOO7U3Z_43om0WdvtXg9C5hijdtZiImpmGdfbKcVi3RN94ntcdfL6O3BfiSNNv-6Ka95z3VrMp-XaXPYe61zVCoABfxWmIhWylnD4PNRmo8bztoZvKg/s1280/GHG+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgOKInFQCdFDcsrXoMi8yS-cjV3XOO7U3Z_43om0WdvtXg9C5hijdtZiImpmGdfbKcVi3RN94ntcdfL6O3BfiSNNv-6Ka95z3VrMp-XaXPYe61zVCoABfxWmIhWylnD4PNRmo8bztoZvKg/w640-h360/GHG+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><u>Slide 2:</u></b></span><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgEWxSt3qJkwNk1mMk0SEPKEHerkhYFCN4dGxLshBb4b80JCoR0NLvnJztuOKMsiO3Fs8TTRv2KybaiO8ji2UeX4O12d5n3WT2C7CFeiyTyycQh0Zmz4SHNFqJricsPzVhDs55XHhAERAg/s1280/ERB+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgEWxSt3qJkwNk1mMk0SEPKEHerkhYFCN4dGxLshBb4b80JCoR0NLvnJztuOKMsiO3Fs8TTRv2KybaiO8ji2UeX4O12d5n3WT2C7CFeiyTyycQh0Zmz4SHNFqJricsPzVhDs55XHhAERAg/w640-h360/ERB+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Slides 1 and 2 explain how earth's energy (radiation) budget (EEB or ERB) is determined. In slide 2, the width of arrows indicate (for guidance only) the amount of energy transferred (<span>for quantitative description see slide A4 in the appendix)</span>. </span><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">If ISWR is the net incoming shortwave radiation absorbed by the earth and OLWR is the net outgoing longwave radiation escaping to space from the top of the atmosphere, then </span><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">If ISWR = OLWR; Earth and Atmosphere temperature remains unchanged</span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">If ISWR > OLWR; Earth gains energy; temperature increases - earth warms </span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;">If ISWR < OLWR; Earth loses energy; temperature decreases - earth cools </span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;">Notice that the earth and the lower atmosphere are in thermal equilibrium and any shift in earth's temperature also changes the temperature in the troposphere in the same sense.</span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span><b><u>Slide 3:</u></b> <i><u>T</u></i></span></span><span style="font-family: verdana;"><i><u>he major contributors to Earth's radiation budget</u>. </i>This is an iconic image that is full of interesting information. Essentially what we are seeing here is the way individual gases absorb incoming and outgoing radiation.</span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1566-R1zCCilP_DbfR8MFVL_1gNuDYERMjAGCWio3wRQvQ8zpGZRau6SrZ4xPBA-CqGQDgDuyfLgSQuzzAfhnaxV7Gsq-oeoMTSce33xumodCXrT4ZK69glvLzyZYI9KKIPyq9cji00E/s1280/ERB+jpeg.jpg" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1566-R1zCCilP_DbfR8MFVL_1gNuDYERMjAGCWio3wRQvQ8zpGZRau6SrZ4xPBA-CqGQDgDuyfLgSQuzzAfhnaxV7Gsq-oeoMTSce33xumodCXrT4ZK69glvLzyZYI9KKIPyq9cji00E/w640-h360/ERB+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></span></span></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">OLWR (shown <span style="color: #2b00fe;">blue</span> in slide 3) is what we call the atmospheric window and is the radiation leaking into outer space. Water and other GHGs absorb longwave radiation and re-emit in all directions; see slide 2). Slide 4 shows the relative roles of water and CO₂ in greater detail - notice the broad absorption band of CO₂ at 15 microns absorbs radiation where water absorption is not saturated. But water vapour is seen as the most important absorber of LW radiation: </span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><u>Slide 4:</u></b></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBCTAJhvLrV78jWX-bWUJmyNKLeCqBKBR_W1Z0WxaDp3C8-R2AS1Asnb6lZT54YKR6L5CBhc3e7vM80wNWeuXyrUR2g-HDVexaLIyqFcvPnukzzN4xqY93E0q7SlRWXZgwX4R32DJFM5A/s1280/water+and+co2+jprg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiBCTAJhvLrV78jWX-bWUJmyNKLeCqBKBR_W1Z0WxaDp3C8-R2AS1Asnb6lZT54YKR6L5CBhc3e7vM80wNWeuXyrUR2g-HDVexaLIyqFcvPnukzzN4xqY93E0q7SlRWXZgwX4R32DJFM5A/w640-h360/water+and+co2+jprg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Clouds contain liquid water/ice crystals and can absorb radiation in the atmospheric window, retaining even more energy in the atmosphere, some of which is radiated back to earth. That is why local temperatures are higher on cloudy days. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;">Water vapour and clouds are responsible for 75-80% of the greenhouse effect - </span><span style="font-family: verdana;">CO₂ and other GHGs for the remaining 25-20%. The maximum amount of water vapour that can be present in the atmosphere depends on its temperature - <span style="color: #2b00fe;">the earth temperature determines the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere.</span> </span></span></div><div><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;">Starting with current levels of CO₂, if we were to remove all of it then</span><span style="font-family: verdana;"> overall greenhouse effect will be weaker by about 20% and the equilibrium temperature of the earth & atmosphere will set lower. This will reduce the amount of water vapour that can be sustained in the atmosphere (<span>see Appendix - water vapour pressure</span>). With less water vapour, decreased amount of outgoing longwave radiation will be trapped. Further cooling will result. The atmosphere will hold even less water vapour. Also more surface area of the earth will be covered by highly reflecting ice and less solar energy (ISWR) will be absorbed by the earth. The feedback loop will continue until we reach a state when the earth is frozen down to the tropics. <i><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Slide 5 shows the projections of what will happen if all </span></i></span><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: verdana;"><i>CO₂ is removed from the atmosphere:</i></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u><b>Slide 5:</b></u></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFRXsltEEy5JlctJMlB9fCG-k2a1WOu-XHvmo2RylfGJ7f2VX3_LlRORfggiQn0FHFqy7qaJJYYi2cjl3OBFlVsjHPPHYNidyNYkPJv2svueDS7cGfoOPENECd3K78NRPd9ehX5X-ZCGs/s1280/CO2+to+0+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhFRXsltEEy5JlctJMlB9fCG-k2a1WOu-XHvmo2RylfGJ7f2VX3_LlRORfggiQn0FHFqy7qaJJYYi2cjl3OBFlVsjHPPHYNidyNYkPJv2svueDS7cGfoOPENECd3K78NRPd9ehX5X-ZCGs/w640-h360/CO2+to+0+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><span style="font-size: large;">The presence of GHGs is vital for the earth to remain at habitable temperatures. However, if GHGs amounts increase then they will trap more of the outgoing radiation and result in additional warming of the atmosphere and earth surface. Warmer atmosphere will be able to hold more water vapour. Extra water will further strengthen the greenhouse effect. This is the loop we are currently in when </span></span><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">CO₂ concentration has been increasing by 2+% per annum for several decades.</span></div><div><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;">On the current trajectory of rising </span><span style="font-family: verdana;">CO₂, by the year 2100, the global mean temperatures could see a rise of 3</span><span style="font-family: verdana;">+⁰C over pre-industrial levels. This will be most unwelcome and will bring widespread misery for a good part of the global population. It is important to control atmospheric GHG</span><span style="font-family: verdana;"> levels urgently.</span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;">___________________________________________</span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">You might also be interested in:</span></div><div><h3 class="post-title entry-title" itemprop="name" style="background-color: #f6f6f6; color: #9e5205; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; letter-spacing: -1px; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2020/01/775-billion-and-415-ppm-why-4c-warmer.html" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: medium;">7.75 Billion and 415 ppm; 4C Warmer World is Really Bad News</span></a></h3><h3 class="post-title entry-title" itemprop="name" style="background-color: #f6f6f6; color: #9e5205; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; letter-spacing: -1px; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><br /></span></h3></div><div><h3 class="post-title entry-title" itemprop="name" style="background-color: #f6f6f6; color: #9e5205; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; letter-spacing: -1px; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2020/10/13-oct-1200-net-zero-by-2050-how-does.html" target="_blank">Net-Zero by 2050</a> - How does One Eliminate Emissions from Agriculture, Heavy Transport & Industry? _A Community Education Feature</span></h3></div><div><span style="font-size: large;">-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------</span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: xx-small;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;"><u style="color: red; font-weight: bold;">Part 2: More Detailed Analysis of Global Warming:</u> </span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;">In part 1, <span style="color: #2b00fe;"><i>it was established that without CO₂ and other noncondensing greenhouse gases, the terrestrial
greenhouse effect would quickly collapse and plunge the global climate into an icebound Earth within a short time interval of a few decades.</i> </span>In Part 2 here, we shall analyse the situation in more detail.</span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;">Earth's net energy budget is profoundly influenced by what happens in the atmosphere - interestingly, <i>the major components of the atmosphere (78% N₂ and 21% O₂) play practically no part - they are almost perfectly transparent to visible and infra-red radiation in the wavelength range of interest (0.4 to 70 </i></span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><i>µm)</i>. Water vapour, ozone and C</span><span style="font-family: verdana;">O₂ are responsible for most of the absorption and re-emission of radiation. Slides 6 and 7 show how these three gases affect incoming SWR and outgoing LWR:</span></span></div><div><span style="font-size: large;"><u style="font-family: verdana;"><b>Slide 6:</b></u></span></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdZLts9quKTWgbyBa0AyUoog1QahznvCsV03ZBj6btv6rs-urSWjanj7ipJcaJGpmkBffUTcgZ2sspnzsiKbaOjMAryEfGKJfcbtmyzk4vEOVVCIx_NlnIPFpMHyL0ptVIYn42znh1_S8/s1280/solar+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgdZLts9quKTWgbyBa0AyUoog1QahznvCsV03ZBj6btv6rs-urSWjanj7ipJcaJGpmkBffUTcgZ2sspnzsiKbaOjMAryEfGKJfcbtmyzk4vEOVVCIx_NlnIPFpMHyL0ptVIYn42znh1_S8/w640-h360/solar+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><span style="font-size: large;"><u style="font-family: verdana;"><b><br /></b></u></span></div><div><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><b><u>Slide 7:</u></b></span></span></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjf8-Sd-xBriFu42RrfzkHuE6V6xyByUCUbzKABdVMPB_Ow8-_qGtgR0_Q84djbgJNtyP06FFmJROkG9mHx9J786F-H6Qx6sP8ta_oKyLvEL8tevYek0nR7fQFRKgankEwx3afswYKNkmw/s1280/OLWR+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjf8-Sd-xBriFu42RrfzkHuE6V6xyByUCUbzKABdVMPB_Ow8-_qGtgR0_Q84djbgJNtyP06FFmJROkG9mHx9J786F-H6Qx6sP8ta_oKyLvEL8tevYek0nR7fQFRKgankEwx3afswYKNkmw/w640-h360/OLWR+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><div><u><b><span style="color: red;">Radiative Forcing:</span></b></u> Atmospheric constituents change the balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing longwave radiation and destabilize earth's thermal equilibrium. <span style="color: red; font-style: italic;">Radiative forcing (RF) of an atmospheric constituent is a measure of how the energy balance of the earth-atmosphere system is influenced by it. </span>RF is measured in Wm⁻².</div><div>For example, the longwave RF (LWRF) due to the presence of an atmospheric constituent is the difference between earth's surface radiation and outgoing longwave radiation (OLWR) at the top of the atmosphere. LWRF for various gases may be calculated from the data in slide 7. </div><div style="text-decoration-line: underline;"><u><b>Slide 8:</b></u></div></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgUVxLNDdKiMqDbWCyh8u2PTwTkQbHSPWXlhCeogbxXtr_MGRQ-bVwJFsBmIMx-suTHFzSv3d7uF6tmfryfIW-W5V06gK1QBewLwppoRVjt5XGRCWzW3xgSrfyQH-NrKNdm-svpSSehTHU/s1280/RF+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgUVxLNDdKiMqDbWCyh8u2PTwTkQbHSPWXlhCeogbxXtr_MGRQ-bVwJFsBmIMx-suTHFzSv3d7uF6tmfryfIW-W5V06gK1QBewLwppoRVjt5XGRCWzW3xgSrfyQH-NrKNdm-svpSSehTHU/w640-h360/RF+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div><br /></div><div>Slide 9 shows how radiation forcing due to some of the most important constituents of the atmosphere (climate drivers) has changed between 1750 and 2011 - <span style="font-family: verdana;">C</span><span style="font-family: verdana;">O₂ is the most important contributor to RF</span>. Not included in slide 9 are water vapour and clouds. Even though they contribute most to the greenhouse effect (slide 4), as mentioned before they are manifestation of feedbacks in the climate system and are not primary drivers of climate change (see section on feedbacks below).</div><div><br /></div><div><u><b>Slide 9:</b></u></div><div> </div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEFVxFIcFKsoFxdddnL3OcNxILv18vo-pbvrqVbUdXZhyZ8TPvQVwW75ISqaLPIZNDmmHNdZj4wCiuIkVN3lOchl5Flgf6ess34KciQy1GDZZtdDpaYOP7Z_aLqK5OQ1ewWC2nqR3Oldg/s1280/RF+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhEFVxFIcFKsoFxdddnL3OcNxILv18vo-pbvrqVbUdXZhyZ8TPvQVwW75ISqaLPIZNDmmHNdZj4wCiuIkVN3lOchl5Flgf6ess34KciQy1GDZZtdDpaYOP7Z_aLqK5OQ1ewWC2nqR3Oldg/w640-h360/RF+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Slide 9 lists a number of ways human activity has contributed to climate forcing since the first industrial revolution. Main contributors are - greenhouse gas emissions, particle pollution (aerosols) and deforestation (changes how earth's surface absorbs and reflects sunlight). Changes in nature also cause climate forcing and have been responsible for many historic climate extremes (ice ages and interglacial periods). Large volcanic eruptions inject light-reflecting particles into the stratosphere and also emit copious amounts of carbon di-oxide gas. Aerosols in the stratosphere have long residency times and cool the earth by reflecting sunlight back to space. Milankovitch cycles refer to small slow variations (happening over thousands of years) in the shape of the earth orbit around the Sun and changes in the tilt of the axis of earth rotation in space. These can affect the amount of sunlight reaching the earth and start a cooling or warming trend. <i><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Over the past 200 years, natural climate drivers have only had a minor effect on global climate (slide 9)</span></i> </span></div><div>Recent data confirms (slide 10) that the amount of GHGs in the atmosphere is continuing to increase with corresponding increase in RF and global mean temperature. (f<i>or more details click <a href="Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 12, 1649–1677, 2020" target="_blank">here</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiative_forcing#:~:text=Radiative%20forcing%20is%20the%20difference,energy%20radiated%20back%20to%20space.&text=Positive%20radiative%20forcing%20means%20Earth,of%20energy%20will%20cause%20warming." target="_blank">here</a></i>) Warmer atmosphere holds more water vapour and this makes further strong contribution to greenhouse effect.</div><div><u><b>Slide 10:</b></u></div><div><u><br /></u></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQEVfzorXuAjj-uxxkrq8R3kd6oT5gcp6fM-g4Tl32zHt95oG0M7goIaAAstwTWkxpR0xjiIWwK3fz47r7Ibxr6cOrNeR4yE68cYdqXdSPLv92vDiTCttMsZwH9ypA4Un279BdXbLl4UI/s1280/RF3+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQEVfzorXuAjj-uxxkrq8R3kd6oT5gcp6fM-g4Tl32zHt95oG0M7goIaAAstwTWkxpR0xjiIWwK3fz47r7Ibxr6cOrNeR4yE68cYdqXdSPLv92vDiTCttMsZwH9ypA4Un279BdXbLl4UI/w640-h360/RF3+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div></div><div>An interesting observation is about the amount of aerosol particles present. Nations are taking outdoor air pollution very seriously and working to reduce aerosols in the environment. Slide 9 shows that aerosols have negative radiation forcing - <span style="color: #2b00fe;"><i>they have a net cooling effect</i></span> - because aerosols scatter some sunlight back to space and also provide nucleation centres for cloud formation. Paradoxically, steps taken to improve the global health by reducing aerosols in the environment may result in making greenhouse effect stronger. </div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u style="color: red; font-weight: bold;">Feedbacks in the Climate System:</u> <a href="https://www.climate.gov/maps-data/primer/climate-forcing" target="_blank">Radiative forcing can trigger feedbacks that intensify or weaken the original forcing.</a> Positive feedbacks increase the original forcing while negative feedbacks dampen it.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">On our planet, all systems are interconnected and continuously exchange information, material and energy. </span><a href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/earth-and-planetary-sciences/climate-feedback " target="_blank">Any change in one system has a cascading effect on other systems</a>. In the climate web, temperature, precipitation and wind are the primary drivers of achieving some sort of equilibrium within the systems. Slide 11 gives a partial list of such interconnections and indicates how feedback loops may become active in response to climate change and may affect the way climate itself is changing. </div><div><i>The most important and extensive is the hydrological system that operates on the three states of water (solid ice, liquid water and water vapour). </i>See slide 11 for more details on feedback loops.<i> </i></div><div><i><br /></i></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u><b>Slide 11:</b></u> </span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyO3TNI5VKPkAfeOS95p8zXDr1UZ6Z0K0p1goi-wDB9ayYMvROMEOPQgzDo14W5oA4zrvGqWZKAAtNGzzvl0wc4gjD8EttzkH7HeAjlfikUOaGzrQFIgXhbA_vFzYNXF97TWiUBV0fn3E/s1280/Loops+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgyO3TNI5VKPkAfeOS95p8zXDr1UZ6Z0K0p1goi-wDB9ayYMvROMEOPQgzDo14W5oA4zrvGqWZKAAtNGzzvl0wc4gjD8EttzkH7HeAjlfikUOaGzrQFIgXhbA_vFzYNXF97TWiUBV0fn3E/w640-h360/Loops+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>Timescales on which different feedbacks operate differ widely - <i>fast feedbacks</i> are of great relevance to us as they can cause large changes over human lifespan. <i>Slow feedbacks</i> affect the climate system over a much longer time periods of centuries to many thousands of years. We shall look at some fast feedbacks in the following:</span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u><a href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/guest-post-understanding-climate-feedbacks#:~:text=Some%20climate%20feedbacks%20kick%20in,clouds%20and%20sea%20ice%20extent.&text=One%20example%20of%20a%20negative,you%20go%20in%20the%20atmosphere." target="_blank"><span style="color: red;">Albedo Change:</span></a></u> Bright white ice and snow reflect a large portion of the Sun's energy that hits the earth's surface - they have a high albedo (>70%). When sea ice and snow melt, they leave behind a darker surface of ocean water or soil that has a much lower albedo (~6%). The result is that the surface retains more of the incident solar energy and warms up. The mean global temperature increases to melt even more ice and snow that results in trapping even more energy.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Water Vapour Change:</span></u> The amount of water vapour that the atmosphere can hold depends on the atmospheric temperature. For each degree increase in temperature, the water vapour pressure increases by <span>about 7% and</span> represents the extra amount of water in the atmosphere due to temperature rise. The extra water vapour increases absorption of outgoing longwave radiation resulting in more warming. This in turn increases the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere further.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span><u>Permafrost Melting:</u><span style="color: #2b00fe;"> </span></span> Permafrost are regions where earth has been frozen year round for thousands of years. Permafrost hold very large amounts of methane. Global warming is causing permafrost to melt and release trapped methane. Methane is a powerful GHG and causes an intensification of the greenhouse effect. The resulting warming will melt more permafrost and still more methane will be released to the atmosphere setting up a positive feedback loop.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: xx-small;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><u>Slide 12:</u></b></span></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgY5r2o4D81NncjO4kKjZzDiJfMITloXR1A_RJ5B5s7EeK_2iC_CJT1ZvPYYwzic9sKQ-OQdpQtyjJtxH0ye5l9T8OC1sjhSirptC99twnH8ZZS5gmXqFFJCHypBKE7AFYDd6FiQ7ZmUus/s1280/feedbacks+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgY5r2o4D81NncjO4kKjZzDiJfMITloXR1A_RJ5B5s7EeK_2iC_CJT1ZvPYYwzic9sKQ-OQdpQtyjJtxH0ye5l9T8OC1sjhSirptC99twnH8ZZS5gmXqFFJCHypBKE7AFYDd6FiQ7ZmUus/w640-h360/feedbacks+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Slide 12 summarises the situation and also lists some of the negative effects of climate change. Many of the effects are already being felt, and it is expected that certain slow feedback loops, already active, will keep global warming intact for centuries. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u>Slow Feedback Loops:</u> Melting of ice sheets is an example of slow feedback loops. Greenland and Antarctica are covered by ice sheets that are up to 2 km thick. Greenland ice sheet (GIS) had melted in the past during interglacial periods and holds enough water to raise the sea level by 7 metres. The time scale for GIS to melt is estimated at several thousand years - however, if the global temperatures rise more rapidly then we might start to see significant sea level rise due to GIS melting much sooner. There is <a href="PNAS March 30, 2021 118 (13) e2021442118;" target="_blank">good evidence</a> that GIS had melted about 400,000 years ago when carbon di-oxide levels were not as high as they are now.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u style="color: #2b00fe; font-weight: bold;">Hydrological Feedback Loop:</u> Water based feedback is unique in that <span style="color: #2b00fe;"><i>it enhances greenhouse effect by a much greater amount than the original radiative forcing by the GHGs. </i></span><i><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Water vapour is the most important actor in causing global warming.</span></i> However, the presence of water vapour in the atmosphere is only possible because GHGs (mainly CO₂) are already there and on their own GHGs warm the earth enough for water to vaporise in sufficient quantity to eventually become the main greenhouse agent. (<i>How vaporisation of water depends on ambient temperature is discussed in the Appendix, see slide A6)</i>.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">How the amount of atmospheric water vapour affetcs its ability to cause warming has been studied in a clever way by using climate models by Andrew Lecis's group at NASA. Without changing the concentration of GHGs (i.e. keeping the amount of CO₂ constant), in various scenarios, first they doubled the amount of water in the atmosphere and then set it to near zero. <i>The results clearly show that the only viable concentration of water in the atmsphere is what is allowed by the prevailing temperature.</i> I have redrawn some of their results in a simplified form to demonstrate that <i><span style="color: #2b00fe;">while water is a potent absorber of infrared radiation, it is the GHGs that control the amount of atmospheric water</span></i>. Too little or too much water than what thermodynamics allows is returned to normal levels within a matter of days. Simplified plots are shown in slides 13 and 14 - <a href="Tellus B 2013, 65, 19734, http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/tellusb.v65i0.19734" target="_blank">for full details, please see the original paper</a>. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u><b>Slide 13:</b></u> </span></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5SWu2m2kwQhES29t_C2UE-Ys4N6JG9NOMhGH3fACTi1uG3xg9CdJUgXLsyXimFd5ezfn_H6uo6Ya9ka_qLU6ORrz-ANEgKKExhRSrJuv5y_GZhm10S0sO9bM5wkSF4G7AspFjLeIOj4Y/s1280/water+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi5SWu2m2kwQhES29t_C2UE-Ys4N6JG9NOMhGH3fACTi1uG3xg9CdJUgXLsyXimFd5ezfn_H6uo6Ya9ka_qLU6ORrz-ANEgKKExhRSrJuv5y_GZhm10S0sO9bM5wkSF4G7AspFjLeIOj4Y/w640-h360/water+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">In the slide, the <span style="color: red;">continuous red line</span> shows the scenario when water level was doubled in the atmosphere near the earth surface. The atmposphere is unable to hold the extra moisture and through precipitation (rain and snow) water levels return to normal (as allowed by thermodynamics - see appendix). The <span style="color: red;">dashed red line</span> shows what happens when the water levels are doubled at the tropopause (about 12 km above the earth's surface). M</span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;">ixing of gases takes somewhat longer due to limitations of atmospheric dynamics causing a time delay of a few days but the extra</span><span style="font-family: verdana;"> atmospheric water again precipitates as in the first case. </span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span style="color: #2b00fe;">B</span><span style="color: #2b00fe;">lue lines</span> show the results when water level were zeroed at the surface or at the tropopause. The deficit of water is made up by evaporation from the oceans to return water levels to the equilibrium levels - again we notice the delay in the second case due to the limitations of vertical mixing efficiency (transporting evaporated water to the upper layers of the atmosphere).</span><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"> </span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u><b>Slide 14:</b></u></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2uU6WO8qoxWDRl94CgptmkgO7WxiT1h4GOtprleZ3OYdNAMWj7vMlJ21GVM4nAYvFI2Fe8ehStYzGu5W47v4jf4MIqWRJ798dgS2txZcv83yOEGkVz8GZYxsCnVQlVDJdr79Q8mapeEU/s1280/flux+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2uU6WO8qoxWDRl94CgptmkgO7WxiT1h4GOtprleZ3OYdNAMWj7vMlJ21GVM4nAYvFI2Fe8ehStYzGu5W47v4jf4MIqWRJ798dgS2txZcv83yOEGkVz8GZYxsCnVQlVDJdr79Q8mapeEU/w640-h360/flux+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Slide 14 shows what happens to the longwave flux at the top of the atmosphere in the two scenarios. By doubling water vapour, we introduce much greater absorption of LW radiation in the atmosphere and less radiation flux reaches TOA - effectively greenhouse effect is enhanced by about 17 Wm⁻² for a short period but is rapidly corrected as water levels reset to normal (slide 13). When all water is removed, the most important absorber is no longer present and much more of the LW flux reaches TOA - the greenhouse effect is weakened by almost 50 Wm⁻², but again resetting to normal values very quickly.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><i><span style="color: #2b00fe;">The conclusion from this study is that amount of atmospheric water is determined by the mean global temperature that is initially set by the atmospheric concentration of GHGs (mainly carbon di-oxide)</span></i>.</span></div><div><br /></div><div><p><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: verdana;"><b><u>APPENDIX</u></b></span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u style="font-weight: bold;">Blackbody Radiation:</u> </span><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span face=""verdana" , sans-serif" style="font-size: large;">All bodies radiate energy in the form </span><span face=""verdana" , sans-serif" style="font-size: large;">of electromagnetic waves - the energy radiated per second (power) dependes on the surface area and temperature of the body (<a href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/thermo/stefan.html">Stefan-Boltzmann Law</a>) and the range of wavelengths emitted is given by the <a href="http://abyss.uoregon.edu/~js/glossary/planck_curve.html">Planck distribution curve</a>. Note that the temperature is the absolute temperature of the body in unit of Kelvin and is related to degree centigrade as: </span><span face=""verdana" , sans-serif" style="font-size: large;">T (Kelvin) = T (⁰C) + 273. </span><span face=""verdana" , sans-serif" style="font-size: large;">The situation is demonstrated in <b><u>Slide A1</u></b> below:</span></span></p><p><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiwJq9PVlVBYYMP8Mu3eKU35yCn_nUEmywhOvED4aZSlFZefeDxNud97ZodkM-jVO6kDKIB-Ouc2y0ndOjRdzS-U4MWXZ_cDZH6h-HcOp9dSbeTi8sU4LmSyhyphenhyphen_ooIKNsSkj4FBZFZdOxY/s1600/jpeg1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="960" height="480" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiwJq9PVlVBYYMP8Mu3eKU35yCn_nUEmywhOvED4aZSlFZefeDxNud97ZodkM-jVO6kDKIB-Ouc2y0ndOjRdzS-U4MWXZ_cDZH6h-HcOp9dSbeTi8sU4LmSyhyphenhyphen_ooIKNsSkj4FBZFZdOxY/s640/jpeg1.jpg" width="640" /></a></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span face=""verdana" , sans-serif" style="font-size: large;"><i>The total energy radiated per second from a given area changes rapidly with the temperature (T) of the body - as fourth power of T</i>. Doubling the temperture increases the energy emitted by a factor of 16. Sun's surface is about 20 times hotter than the earth; and the Sun radiates 20⁴ or 160,000 times more energy per unit area. Also the Sun is much bigger than the earth. </span><br /><span face=""verdana" , sans-serif" style="font-size: large;"><i>The wavelength at which peak energy is radiated depends on the temperature of the emitting body.</i> There is a simple relation called the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wien%27s_displacement_law">Wien's displacement law</a> that tells us where the maximum intensity of the Planck curve is:</span><br /><span face=""verdana" , sans-serif" style="font-size: xx-small;"><br /></span><span face=""verdana" , sans-serif" style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: blue;"><i>Wavelength (max intensity) in microns = 2898/Temperature in Kelvin</i></span></span><br /><span face=""verdana" , sans-serif"><span style="color: blue; font-size: xx-small;"><br /></span></span><span face=""verdana" , sans-serif" style="font-size: large;">Remember: 1 micron = 10⁻⁶m = 0.001 mm; and T (Kelvin) = T(⁰C)+273</span><br /><span face=""verdana" , sans-serif" style="font-size: xx-small;"><br /></span><span face=""verdana" , sans-serif" style="font-size: large;">We can summarise the discussion by plotting the spectral distribution of radiation from the Sun and the Earth. In Slide A2, the Sun's radiation intensity has been scaled down to compare its shape with the earth's emitted radiation. <i>The main take away is that the Sun radiates in regions around the visible wavelengths while the earth's radiation is totally in IR extending from 4 to 70 micron wavelengths</i>.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span face=""verdana" , sans-serif" style="font-size: large;"><b><u>Slide A2: </u></b></span><br style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium;" /></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyU9yLG5VBqy4XzrhRSJFsyKuR-4WuJu4-pfDJQaXEHPmUyux03UKAhCUIj9blQDbQXFzqqwotCNzx8MWs2L9sVKDUQGcQ57D6fnTrQIwq2rxYGkZbt2Jq8Ot9ptIHIWIFMxKdrNGgor4/s1600/jpegsun3.jpg" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="960" height="480" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhyU9yLG5VBqy4XzrhRSJFsyKuR-4WuJu4-pfDJQaXEHPmUyux03UKAhCUIj9blQDbQXFzqqwotCNzx8MWs2L9sVKDUQGcQ57D6fnTrQIwq2rxYGkZbt2Jq8Ot9ptIHIWIFMxKdrNGgor4/s640/jpegsun3.jpg" width="640" /></a></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">From the well understood properties of gases and how they interact with radiation, it is possible to calculate earth's energy budget (EEB) with good confidence. To keep the task manageable, the atmosphere is treated as consisting of a small number of layers: </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><u>Slide A3:</u></b> </span><b style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><u>Earth Energy Budget (results from models):</u></b></p><p><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWwOA56v-JHCTGbYAQlnROda2KwU7MlgO2LStvIHofKVu9IDYWu9ZJwPdTmYEsCx3WUVe1lRLWyzo1brMJ1Aqc6KPJLAHEaIT_OOgM2Z0habrAoc2uybHDS8fl98C5E5_q4wiMQZSwixY/s1280/layers+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiWwOA56v-JHCTGbYAQlnROda2KwU7MlgO2LStvIHofKVu9IDYWu9ZJwPdTmYEsCx3WUVe1lRLWyzo1brMJ1Aqc6KPJLAHEaIT_OOgM2Z0habrAoc2uybHDS8fl98C5E5_q4wiMQZSwixY/w640-h360/layers+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;">The properties of the atmospheric layers are chosen to reproduce the measured energy fluxes at top of the atmosphere (TOA) and current climate parameters. Slide A4 shows the result for EEB assuming a 3 layer atmosphere. </span><a href="https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/78/2/1520-0477_1997_078_0197_eagmeb_2_0_co_2.xml?tab_body=pdf" style="font-family: verdana;" target="_blank">These comprehensive calculations (KT97) were performed in 1997</a><span style="font-family: verdana;"> and have since been revised with minor changes in the results. I show the original results - for </span><a href="Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society Vol. 90,311-323 (2009)" style="font-family: verdana;" target="_blank">recent updates (TFK09,</a><span style="font-family: verdana;"> </span><a href="Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society, 142(695) pp. 703–720" style="font-family: verdana;" target="_blank">Trenberth Diagrams</a><span style="font-family: verdana;">, </span><a href="https://pubs.giss.nasa.gov/docs/2013/2013_Lacis_la06400p.pdf" style="font-family: verdana;" target="_blank">Lacis</a><span style="font-family: verdana;">). </span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society Vol. 78,197-208 (1997)" style="font-family: verdana;" target="_blank">KT97</a><span><span style="font-family: verdana;"> and <a href="https://pubs.giss.nasa.gov/docs/2013/2013_Lacis_la06400p.pdf" target="_blank">Lacis</a> describe the details of how properties of the layers are chosen and all other relevant information.</span></span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><u><b>Slide A4:</b></u> </span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRiSprctbk7pbzsa5ajxoZ9pjsCorzu5IDhGNlC54jZUERGsnGW9oq6iThlVdwuso6PJ9Oc8frvGjJDeOY_Xo7JT7y9bKNr_boDxqY1tLPfZ8g1000aYoLyl6uCgGKdlxX3cBPmVi3ZDM/s1280/EEB+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhRiSprctbk7pbzsa5ajxoZ9pjsCorzu5IDhGNlC54jZUERGsnGW9oq6iThlVdwuso6PJ9Oc8frvGjJDeOY_Xo7JT7y9bKNr_boDxqY1tLPfZ8g1000aYoLyl6uCgGKdlxX3cBPmVi3ZDM/w640-h360/EEB+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></span></div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span><br /><span>In the diagram above, the incoming energy is equal to the outgoing energy both at the top of the atmosphere (342 Wm⁻²) and at the earth's surface (492 </span></span><span><span>Wm⁻²)</span><span> - this represents a state of equilibrium and the temperature of the earth and its atmosphere will stay constant. <i><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Notice that the total energy flux of </span></i></span></span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><i><span style="color: #2b00fe;"><span style="font-family: verdana;">492 </span><span style="font-family: verdana;">Wm⁻² </span><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span>arriving at the earth's surface is much greater than </span></span><span style="font-family: verdana;">342 Wm⁻² </span><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span>arriving at TOA because atmospheric gases absorb and re-emit substantial amount of LWR emitted by the earth back towards</span></span><span style="font-family: verdana;"> it.</span></span></i><span style="font-family: verdana;"><i><span style="color: #2b00fe;"> </span></i> </span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Slide A5 (this is the same as slide 3 in the main text - I show it for completeness) shows the major contributors to Earth's radiation budget. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u><b>Slide A5:</b></u></span></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1566-R1zCCilP_DbfR8MFVL_1gNuDYERMjAGCWio3wRQvQ8zpGZRau6SrZ4xPBA-CqGQDgDuyfLgSQuzzAfhnaxV7Gsq-oeoMTSce33xumodCXrT4ZK69glvLzyZYI9KKIPyq9cji00E/s1280/ERB+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-size: large;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh1566-R1zCCilP_DbfR8MFVL_1gNuDYERMjAGCWio3wRQvQ8zpGZRau6SrZ4xPBA-CqGQDgDuyfLgSQuzzAfhnaxV7Gsq-oeoMTSce33xumodCXrT4ZK69glvLzyZYI9KKIPyq9cji00E/w640-h360/ERB+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></span></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div></div><div><p><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><u style="font-weight: bold;">Vapour Pressure of Water:</u> </span> <span style="font-family: verdana;"><i><span style="color: #2b00fe;">The equilibrium between water vapour and liquid water in any system depends on the temperature of the system</span></i>. The equilibrium (also called saturated) water vapour pressure (VP) increases as temperature goes up. The Clausius-Clapeyron equation describes how the VP changes with temperature. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><u><b>Slide A6:</b></u> </span></span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEil0hQdNUShf3pIQRaENkrxpm73kRvbnnDQ1f648Nq0EIhM80eC4k9PO0AkXSiCrcsdxerAH46yYhhI5oTH5D1Ndvopj2j9QTef4TmT99YO8_6FaWEitX7jyLuBJsqu5cuFXLE6n0U8AOc/s1280/VP+of+water+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEil0hQdNUShf3pIQRaENkrxpm73kRvbnnDQ1f648Nq0EIhM80eC4k9PO0AkXSiCrcsdxerAH46yYhhI5oTH5D1Ndvopj2j9QTef4TmT99YO8_6FaWEitX7jyLuBJsqu5cuFXLE6n0U8AOc/w640-h360/VP+of+water+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">The graph in slide A6 shows the saturation vapour pressure (VP) of water as a function of temperature. If the amount of water in gaseous state is greater than VP then the excess water will condense to bring VP to the equilibrium value. This is the reason that most water is found in the warmer part of the atmosphere with the troposphere containing 99% of the atmospheric water (<span>slide A7</span>). Also, if the amount of water in gaseous state is lower than the saturation VP for the temperature, then some water will evaporate from the liquid state to bring the system to thermal equilibrium as demanded by the Clausius-Clapeyron equation.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u>Slide A7:</u></span></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTHqRAEit5Ul582BOVwSvXZj7hxUgPSBxPLL7nR6Rb8dhbnvFJBmvVlIMDFvkYkpnYNephEIJrtBikxQ7XFcR257Z-fB0dmeMC0kMeh376LNXTOv33oi48r418BUAv_LE1I6rZtCxahso/s1280/troposphere+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiTHqRAEit5Ul582BOVwSvXZj7hxUgPSBxPLL7nR6Rb8dhbnvFJBmvVlIMDFvkYkpnYNephEIJrtBikxQ7XFcR257Z-fB0dmeMC0kMeh376LNXTOv33oi48r418BUAv_LE1I6rZtCxahso/w640-h360/troposphere+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">It is straightforward to understand the variations shown in slide 7. The earth warms by receiving solar radiation; the increase in surface temperature causes water to evaporate - water vapour has much greater internal energy than liquid water (latent heat of vaporization) and evaporation represents net energy transfer from earth to the atmosphere (slide A4). Gases at the earth surface also heat up and rise (convection) and carry energy to the atmosphere. As water and gases rise, they expand and cool until their temperature is equal to that of gases at higher altitudes (of the order of -65⁰C) - this layer is called the tropopause that is about 10 to 12 km above the earth's surface. Beyond tropopause temperature rises again and cooler gases of the troposphere cannot rise higher and can only move sideways. There is very little mixing of gases between the troposphere and stratosphere.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Stratospheric ozone layer is at about 20 km altitude - ozone absorbs ultraviolet radiation energy from the Sun and warms the rather tenuous atmosphere quite efficiently, so much so that the temperature warms up to just below 0⁰C at the top of the stratosphere. Because the density of gases is very low in the stratosphere, it takes only a small quantity of increase its temperature.</span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">It might be useful to mention some interesting facts about water in the atmosphere. Of all the water on earth, 0.001% is in the atmosphere - enough to cover the earth's surface by 2.5 cm (= 1 inch)! Each gram of water that evaporates reduces the energy on earth by 2500 J (600 calories). This energy is released to the atmosphere when water vapour liquefies and falls back on earth as rain, heating the lower troposphere. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;">Some relevant information about this post is that water vapour is such a good absorber of outgoing longwave radiation that it absorbs most of the radiation emitted by the earth (except in the atmospheric window) very quickly and reradiates it at the prevailing temperature of the troposphere at that altitude - in fact the measured effective temperature of the outgoing radiation at top of the atmosphere is -18⁰C and not 15⁰C (surface temperature of the earth). Additionally, </span><span style="color: #2b00fe;"><i><span style="font-size: large;">most of the water is in the troposphere where it is the most potent greenhouse gas. Above the tropopause, CO2 and other GHGs provide most of the greenhouse effect with water only playing a minor part in the stratosphere - there is much less absorption of outgoing LW energy beyond the tropopause (discussed in more detail in </span></i></span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society Vol. 78,197-208 (1997)" style="font-family: verdana;" target="_blank">KT97</a><span style="font-family: verdana;">)</span></span><i style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;">. See also the very interesting figure <a href="https://twitter.com/rarohde/status/1196761516051238912?lang=he " target="_blank">here</a>.</i></div><div><br /></div></div></div>Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-656274836058069289.post-6944834941416563982021-02-19T09:34:00.007+00:002021-09-28T10:30:13.307+01:00Extreme and Unique Properties of Water are Fundamental to Sustaining Life on Earth; Structure of Water, Hydrogen Bonds, Physical and Chemical Properties of Water<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium;"> </span><i style="background-color: #f6f6f6; font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="color: red;"><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2015/11/blogger-profile-and-blog-index-ravi.html" style="color: #de7008;" target="_blank">Blog Contents and Who am I?</a></span></i></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><i style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><span style="color: red;">Water is an amazing substance.</span></i><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"> Water is everywhere. Water is a
compound made from hydrogen and oxygen - two elements that are the most
abundant in the solar system (besides helium). </span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpFirst" style="line-height: normal; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Ø<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Water covers 70% of the Earth's surface.
Human body is 60+% water, as are most animals. Plants can be up to 95%
water. <i>The biosphere seriously depends on water for its function
and survival</i>. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Ø<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Water makes photosynthesis possible and <i>enables
production of food on which all living creatures depend for energy.</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Ø<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Water is vital for supporting living organisms - in
thermal regulation, transport of oxygen and nutrients, biochemical reactions,
stability of cellular structures; <i>many functions of the body depend on
the availability of water and no other substance can replace it.</i> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Ø<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Gases in the atmosphere act as a <i>blanket</i> that
keeps the Earth about 33⁰C warmer than it would be otherwise - <i>making
survival of complex life possible</i>. Water vapour provides about 60% of
this '<i>insulation</i>' and prevents heat energy escaping from the earth to
outer space.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Ø<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Water in the oceans absorbs 94% of incident solar
energy and helps to distribute this energy over the rest of the
Earth. At normal environmental temperatures, water is found in all three
states (solid, liquid & gas). <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpMiddle" style="line-height: normal; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Ø<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Without water, it would be impossible
to maintain a steady planetary temperature and avoid severe short term fluctuations. <i>Earth's
climate critically depends in the way water is distributed geographically.</i><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoListParagraphCxSpLast" style="line-height: normal; mso-add-space: auto; mso-list: l0 level1 lfo1; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto; text-indent: -18pt;"><!--[if !supportLists]--><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Ø<span style="font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; line-height: normal;"> </span><!--[endif]-->Water is called the 'universal solvent' - in rivers
it brings nutrients essential for agriculture. Water helps to dispose
human waste, is vital for practically all industrial/manufacturing activity
- <i>complex civilizations critically depend on the availability of water</i> -
droughts (lack of water resources) have been responsible for the fall of many
historic civilizations. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><i><span style="color: red;">The question is - what makes water so
important for life and why no other substance can replace it?</span></i> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span style="color: red;">Compared with other materials, water has
some extreme and unusual properties. Without these, earth's climate would be
seriously hostile, and the life as we know will not be able to function. </span> </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><i><u>Slide 1:</u></i> </span></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgUgy8rXhuryStOKGk2VDkWsJxlhgJed74vkn5CSY_7_OtlKLbdXQh5MIX1P8bOl0hftGBzp6isvQzR740HJcYW0HmtLKbxZpi2iJ9rXrG0IJIxabu03B1rSUMuA3uSNAfkK_e3_OvU0xQ/s1280/water+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgUgy8rXhuryStOKGk2VDkWsJxlhgJed74vkn5CSY_7_OtlKLbdXQh5MIX1P8bOl0hftGBzp6isvQzR740HJcYW0HmtLKbxZpi2iJ9rXrG0IJIxabu03B1rSUMuA3uSNAfkK_e3_OvU0xQ/w640-h360/water+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><span style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana;">The chemistry of water, </span></span><span style="font-family: verdana; text-align: left;">H₂O,</span><span style="font-family: verdana; text-align: left;"> is fascinating and mostly revolves around the way a </span><span style="font-family: verdana; text-align: left;">water molecule (itself formed by the combination of </span><span style="font-family: verdana; text-align: left;">one oxygen and</span><span style="font-family: verdana; text-align: left;"> </span><span style="font-family: verdana; text-align: left;">two hydrogen atoms - covalent bonding - see slide 2) can attract other water molecules (cohesion) and also attract many other chemicals (adhesion) by forming hydrogen bonds (H-bonds). The science of the formation of H-bonds<span> is discussed in more detail in the Appendix.</span><span style="color: #2b00fe;"> </span></span><span style="font-family: verdana; text-align: left;">It is also worth pointing out that in water the covalent bond (intramolecular force binding oxygen and hydrogen molecules) </span></span><span style="font-size: large; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: verdana; text-align: left;">is 20 times stronger than the hydrogen bond (intermolecular foce binding two different water molecules) - </span><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: verdana; text-align: left;">the covalent bond has a strength of ~ 460 kJ/mole while H-bonds are 23 kJ/mole. </span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-size: large;"><i style="color: black;"><u>Slide 2:</u></i></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-size: large;"><i style="color: black;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgu3E4nw6rwCmAA7bgVrzFs6EEG_4Qigr2c94uAFvQkD_2eyqpbftldfgpcDsq7GQ79OCLp__ya_FMfSeVEjQ9FcEozRpxf6RBEQCqEJQowvzh3Vy8vdaQHzZ_ET8qtcsFrMB7c0LQTG9g/s1280/water+1+jpeg.jpg" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; font-style: normal; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgu3E4nw6rwCmAA7bgVrzFs6EEG_4Qigr2c94uAFvQkD_2eyqpbftldfgpcDsq7GQ79OCLp__ya_FMfSeVEjQ9FcEozRpxf6RBEQCqEJQowvzh3Vy8vdaQHzZ_ET8qtcsFrMB7c0LQTG9g/w640-h360/water+1+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></i></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><span><i>Many physical properties of water molecules (properties 1 to 8 in slide 1) are determined by inter-molecular forces like the hydrogen bonds. </i></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Structural_Biochemistry/Chemical_Bonding/Hydrogen_bonds#:~:text=of%20molecular%20motion.-,Hydrogen%20bonding%20in%20DNA,Cytosine%2C%20Adenine%2C%20and%20Thymine.&text=These%20hydrogen%20bonds%20between%20complementary,environment%20such%20as%20with%20water." target="_blank">H-bonds are responsible for the stability of the double helix in DNA, in determining the specific 3-D shapes of proteins and enzymes, and many physical properties of polymers like cellulose, nylon etc.</a> (see Appendix)</span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span><br /></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">In the following, I describe how unique and extreme many properties of water are in comparison to other substances. </span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u style="color: #2b00fe; font-weight: bold;">Liquid Water is Heavier than Ice</u> - <span style="color: #2b00fe;"><i>In the solid state, all substances have a higher density (mass per unit volume) than in the liquid state - except water.</i></span> Water has the unique property that liquid water is heavier than it is in solid phase (ice). The freezing point of water is 0⁰C.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><i><u>Slide 3:</u></i> </span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBHRad4npAyGhyphenhyphen4QraPcHS_VhHG1Im2nN58n3ay9_QQbNabukRoh_kg3BNRzkRLUO6UDVZ3G1FSvFTFsLyFErFFBqA7rPTmKEzcxg8rijrxmmk2eJw_gNija9VDfChvLUwtiTkerx8z3Q/s1280/density+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjBHRad4npAyGhyphenhyphen4QraPcHS_VhHG1Im2nN58n3ay9_QQbNabukRoh_kg3BNRzkRLUO6UDVZ3G1FSvFTFsLyFErFFBqA7rPTmKEzcxg8rijrxmmk2eJw_gNija9VDfChvLUwtiTkerx8z3Q/w640-h360/density+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;">Kinetic energy (energy of motion) of </span><span style="font-family: verdana;">molecules</span><span style="font-family: verdana;"> </span><span style="font-family: verdana;">increases linearly with temperature - at higher temperatures molecules move about more vigorously. In the case of water in solid state (ice), molecules are held in place in an hexagonal (six-sided polygon) crystalline structure with lot of empty space (for a 2-D view, see slide 4). In ice, the slightly electropositive hydrogen atoms of a water molecule form hydrogen bonds with the electronegative side of oxygen atoms of two other water molecules (see slide 4a and Appendix for hydrogen bonding). In liquid water, due to thermal motion hydrogen bonds are constantly broken and re-formed hundreds of billions times per second - allowing some water molecules to have on average somewhat smaller spacing (higher density) than in the rigid ice structure.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><i style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><u><br /></u></i></div><div style="text-align: left;"><i style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><u>Slide 4:</u></i><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"> </span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhiSyjTC2eS0g8noyM6-pIbvmszYebwhV0dPW7u148XaJZq_QeDmUWZa-GBtfl00mMBJuNreEGl3BaHRjuKrP-Ikqz-1-eHO2ZrIHCP7Z7hryRJdzIcCD8Yr87hbVXb50unkJ28NCuU1tQ/s1280/water+4+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhiSyjTC2eS0g8noyM6-pIbvmszYebwhV0dPW7u148XaJZq_QeDmUWZa-GBtfl00mMBJuNreEGl3BaHRjuKrP-Ikqz-1-eHO2ZrIHCP7Z7hryRJdzIcCD8Yr87hbVXb50unkJ28NCuU1tQ/w640-h360/water+4+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div style="text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><br /></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><i><u>Slide 4a:</u></i></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheVMFQJyoMBfhDpJ5ob5_0fYdqXUDR0kSq9pVBcOn1lwo3XJcfwht24Z2mFm9QpHv2VRd2oh8JshSO4of2Z7_L81mf1JTi9PCf0c5lbuimcmVaE89T08q-T5MTZBFGjiCxAJ7C0lHhFog/s1280/water+3+jpeg.jpg" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEheVMFQJyoMBfhDpJ5ob5_0fYdqXUDR0kSq9pVBcOn1lwo3XJcfwht24Z2mFm9QpHv2VRd2oh8JshSO4of2Z7_L81mf1JTi9PCf0c5lbuimcmVaE89T08q-T5MTZBFGjiCxAJ7C0lHhFog/w640-h360/water+3+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><i><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div></i></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">The strength and number of H-bonds that each water molecule can form give water its unique density profile. As temperature is raised above zero degree, only a very small number of H-bonds are broken; thermal motion is not sufficiently energetic to increase average spacing between water molecules (at 0⁰C, there are still 3.69 H-bonds per water molecule present), but free water molecules can enter the empty spaces of the ice crystal - the result is that the voids in ice are reduced, and the density of water increases as ice melts. It is only above 4⁰C that the increased spacing due to thermal motion causes the density of water to start decreasing with rising temperature. </span><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"> </span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">A well-known consequence of water being heavier than ice is that in colder parts of the earth (higher northern and southern latitudes), during winter months when the ambient temperature falls below freezing, the top surface of water in lakes freezes. Ice being lighter than water stays on top - floats above the liquid water below. Ice is also a very poor conductor of heat and the heat loss from water below it is greatly reduced with the result that water stays liquid for much longer. As ice thickness increases, the water under it is insulated even more effectively. The liquid water enables aquatic life in the lakes to survive.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">We all know that pot holes appear in roads during the winter season. This happens because small cracks in the road surface are filled with water. This water freezes when the temperature falls below freezing. As ice has a larger volume than water, the newly formed ice creates a strong stress on the surrounding tarmac and cracks it - this eventually grows in size and damages the road surface.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">On a larger scale, a similar process is responsible for disintegrating rocks (mechanical weathering of rocks) when water freezes in the cracks making them bigger. In the next cycle, water would have seeped deeper into the now-bigger cracks. The process continues until the rock disintegrates.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Food from the freezer does not taste as good as fresh food. The reason is that in frozen food, water in the cells freezes, expands and damages some of the cell membranes. The liquid from the cells changes the texture and taste of the food. If you refreeze the food then even more cell walls will be damaged resulting in further loss of quality. Refreezing ice-cream is a particularly bad idea.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u style="color: #2b00fe; font-weight: bold;">High Melting and Boiling Points:</u> Water has abnormally high melting and boiling points compared with other similar compounds (slides 5 and 6). This is due to the strength and number of hydrogen bonds (H-bonds). <i><span style="color: red;">A water molecule can form H-bond with four other water molecules (see slide 4a)</span></i>. Due to the presence of large number of relatively strong H-bonds, one requires considerably increased thermal motion to make individual water molecules free - <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Structural_Biochemistry/Chemical_Bonding/Hydrogen_bonds#:~:text=of%20molecular%20motion.-,Hydrogen%20bonding%20in%20DNA,Cytosine%2C%20Adenine%2C%20and%20Thymine.&text=These%20hydrogen%20bonds%20between%20complementary,environment%20such%20as%20with%20water." target="_blank">it is estimated that even at 100⁰C, on average a water molecule has 3.24 H-bondings with neighbouring molecules. </a></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: left;"><i style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><u>Slide 5:</u></i><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"> </span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEii8PpYYJaG4T4GhYJzICaqwVnhGYjRaHlHmnllpT-G9Z76-cK6Ud5dtn8IhmVdh0pPaOWVwmjUEHdBaliwSrR769jB9MFzOBvzFEV9HP0OReFCpYyHvy8bIF9U0W4iqnanMLCjF_uf4rE/s1280/BP+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEii8PpYYJaG4T4GhYJzICaqwVnhGYjRaHlHmnllpT-G9Z76-cK6Ud5dtn8IhmVdh0pPaOWVwmjUEHdBaliwSrR769jB9MFzOBvzFEV9HP0OReFCpYyHvy8bIF9U0W4iqnanMLCjF_uf4rE/w640-h360/BP+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div style="text-align: left;"><i style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><u>Slide 6:</u></i><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"> </span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj1d0bdA-rQNnYuzU2EVAfEQncF5fHXkHEtCnFLqrMQVMtKOWBb5vzHaHP3WksEpLYoghe7KMQ9A3H0vai5HUbd6v2UtDAn4of-k4hq_2jQflJHIoBzVcsEfbRXFSizt6wKDd1nVOGx7Cw/s1280/mp+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj1d0bdA-rQNnYuzU2EVAfEQncF5fHXkHEtCnFLqrMQVMtKOWBb5vzHaHP3WksEpLYoghe7KMQ9A3H0vai5HUbd6v2UtDAn4of-k4hq_2jQflJHIoBzVcsEfbRXFSizt6wKDd1nVOGx7Cw/w640-h360/mp+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">The above slides show the systematics that <i><u>within a group</u>, melting and boiling points decrease when hydrogen covalently combines with elements of a lower period</i> - see slide A1 in the Appendix for details of the periods and groups of the periodic table; without H-bonding, water would freeze around -110⁰C and boil at around -75⁰C. If water was like other hydrides then most water on earth will readily evaporate and eventually leave the earth's atmosphere (we need to thank H-bonds that we have water on earth!). </span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Water is the only substance that is present in solid (snow and ice), liquid and gaseous (water vapour, clouds) forms at temperatures that naturally occur on the earth. Our planet's weather pattern is driven by the ability of water to vaporise at prevailing temperatures - solar energy is mostly received in the tropics but is distributed over the rest of the globe by the heat carried by atmospheric water vapour and by ocean currents. Without regular rainfall, many parts of the world will not be able to sustain agriculture and support large populations. </span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><u>High Specific Heat Capacity, Latent Heats of Fusion and Evaporation:</u></b></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Slides 7, 8 and 9 show that water has exceptionally high values for the above physical properties.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><i style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><u>Slide 7:</u></i></div><div style="text-align: left;"><i style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><u><br /></u></i></div><div style="text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwPIKHdYildFvI53xdaQtVqjCS6ATpM2at3wKq89NBpsjsFp7hyphenhyphenb1_3vGhMDgo5UIfqD8gH5FoJRqc_rWF1FWXb0fspSHGG2GRpI2MsacbTRSzfnpH-Ltxnw3JUTFQZisKzIfVaWkZRsw/s1280/spheat+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjwPIKHdYildFvI53xdaQtVqjCS6ATpM2at3wKq89NBpsjsFp7hyphenhyphenb1_3vGhMDgo5UIfqD8gH5FoJRqc_rWF1FWXb0fspSHGG2GRpI2MsacbTRSzfnpH-Ltxnw3JUTFQZisKzIfVaWkZRsw/w640-h360/spheat+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><i><u>Slide 8:</u></i></span><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div></div><div style="text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjbWrJlG3zuST0Eq5vEGC3AqAAm00lNpqNIlb1SCe2X71kru1rYSAyqQcsj1JylN41V4KRkE71EKJuvvjhXTGnjaSDpgFDqR0dt6SAZmlXpnNHCU8wo4CHgBxvHNSCkyDshVHtktKwkuGI/s1280/mp+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjbWrJlG3zuST0Eq5vEGC3AqAAm00lNpqNIlb1SCe2X71kru1rYSAyqQcsj1JylN41V4KRkE71EKJuvvjhXTGnjaSDpgFDqR0dt6SAZmlXpnNHCU8wo4CHgBxvHNSCkyDshVHtktKwkuGI/w640-h360/mp+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><i><u>Slide 9:</u></i></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: left;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEixd1o90G4YCg1Q13r8KiKXi5QPdZjvuQpxMMzSBnyqefkaUarJKPYXz8CPbVMbPjYYa4G-oN1yNDlqiLfDiuNSCEJpLULZwHZOpSA4XEhUhNTltUPR1K4Xg7ezhHDXmR7G_WfXxgcCmqY/s1280/Vap+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEixd1o90G4YCg1Q13r8KiKXi5QPdZjvuQpxMMzSBnyqefkaUarJKPYXz8CPbVMbPjYYa4G-oN1yNDlqiLfDiuNSCEJpLULZwHZOpSA4XEhUhNTltUPR1K4Xg7ezhHDXmR7G_WfXxgcCmqY/w640-h360/Vap+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a><br /><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Again, these properties of water owe their extremely high values to the number and strength of H-bonds present. The above three slides compare water with other common substances found in nature and it is obvious that water has extreme values. Let us recap what information is there:</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Specific Heat Capacity (C): This is the amount of energy required to increase the temperature of a unit mass of liquid water by 1⁰C. For water it is 4.18 Joule per gram or 1 calorie per gram. </span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Latent Heat of Fusion (Lf): Amount of energy required to melt a unit mass of ice at 0⁰C. It is 334 Joule per gram or 80 calorie per gram.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Latent Heat of Vaporisation (Lv): Amount of energy required to vaporise a unit mass of water at 100⁰C and 1 atmospheric pressure. It is 2265 Joule per gram or 541.3 calorie per gram.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Lf and Lv have such high values compared to C because in order to heat liquid water, we are simply breaking some H-bonds to let water molecules move about a bit more freely. For fusion, we are disturbing the rather stable crystal structure of ice by removing water molecules and on average more H-bonds must be broken to do so. Lv has the extraordinarily high value, 541 times bigger than C, and represents the need to break all H-bonds and supply enough thermal motion to water molecules to break them free from the water surface (water surface tension is also abnormally high - this is discussed later). </span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><a href="https://nrich.maths.org/7273" target="_blank">What does it mean to have such large values for C, Lf and Lv?</a> Let us consider some implications:<br /></span><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b>Temperature Regulation:</b> <i>Slide 7 tells us that it takes seven times more energy to heat water than heating sand, concrete or brick</i>. In the environment, light brings energy from the Sun and is absorbed by the earth's surface. Most surfaces on land become quite hot but water in the lakes and ocean never gets very warm. Warm air flows from land to water bodies during the day and helps to cool land surfaces. The wind direction reverses during the night when land surfaces have cooled rapidly. </span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Water covers 70% of the earth's surface and with its large C value, acts as a heat reservoir without letting the ambient temperatures rise/fluctuate too much. <i>The large value of the specific heat of water helps to minimize temperature fluctuations helping life to survive. </i></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><i><br /></i></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;">Human body maintains a core temperature of 37⁰C and will stop functioning at 42+⁰C. When exercising or in high ambient temperatures or if you have high fever, the body produces sweat (sweat is mostly water). Water in sweat </span><span><span style="font-family: verdana;">evaporates</span><span style="font-family: verdana;"> to cool the body. The energy required to eva</span></span><span style="font-family: verdana;">porate water is drawn from the body and </span><span style="font-family: verdana;">as Lv has a large value, </span><span style="font-family: verdana;">sweating is a very </span><span style="font-family: verdana;">efficient way for regulating body temperature.</span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">_____________________________________________________</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><b><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Have you read?</span></b></div><div style="text-align: left;"><b><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></b></div><div style="text-align: left;"><h3 class="post-title entry-title" itemprop="name" style="background-color: #f6f6f6; color: #9e5205; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 20.8px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; letter-spacing: -1px; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2016/02/why-does-steam-cause-more-severe-burns.html" style="font-weight: normal;" target="_blank">Why Does Steam Cause More Severe Burns Than Hot Water? - Physics of Thermal Burns</a></h3></div><div style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><h3 class="post-title entry-title" itemprop="name" style="background-color: #f6f6f6; color: #9e5205; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-size: 20.8px; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; letter-spacing: -1px; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2018/01/the-science-of-heatstrokes-when-bodys.html" style="font-weight: normal;" target="_blank">The Science of Heat Strokes (Hyperthermia) - When Body's Thermal Regulation Mechanism in Unable to Cope...</a></h3><div><br /></div><div>-----------------------------------------------------------------------------</div><div><br /></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"> <i> </i></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-size: large; font-weight: bold; text-decoration-line: underline;">Surface Tension and Capillarity of Water:</span><span><span style="font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="font-size: large;">Surface Tension is the tendency of liquid surfaces to shrink into the minimum surface area possible. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><i style="font-family: verdana;"><u><span style="font-size: large;">Slide 10:</span></u></i></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQrTLnNjgRcqVIqbI8AShnit760shjMiCwvUsLRBz136vAet9tgHyNiyCYOFhEGisfDmWJWi9PxgHXH4YVo9HwPVhZx1egC9FocUXWMjF54Q447Wp2HBSKJ9UqOuVIvXwU63HlW8BZmDg/s1280/ST+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgQrTLnNjgRcqVIqbI8AShnit760shjMiCwvUsLRBz136vAet9tgHyNiyCYOFhEGisfDmWJWi9PxgHXH4YVo9HwPVhZx1egC9FocUXWMjF54Q447Wp2HBSKJ9UqOuVIvXwU63HlW8BZmDg/w640-h360/ST+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;">Water has the highest surface tension of all liquids - except mercury. Mercury is a metal, and metallic bonding forces are extremely strong; this makes the surface tension in mercury very large - about 6 times greater than water. Slide 11 lists surface tension values of common liquids:</span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><i><u>Slide 11:</u></i></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKlkMwS8RbdrA1Gu3cjO3q5J88uXd2STX1_lz-abbinveF6dnJ4d_kViMLLvmVmFdFEwzPLMNaHsxk7jekDPh1rHp3J-IbstoLJf-QJw8It1MD5dDyojzqKyIoCiHjKZLHFLFjUbUiEqo/s1280/ST+jpeg.jpg" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjKlkMwS8RbdrA1Gu3cjO3q5J88uXd2STX1_lz-abbinveF6dnJ4d_kViMLLvmVmFdFEwzPLMNaHsxk7jekDPh1rHp3J-IbstoLJf-QJw8It1MD5dDyojzqKyIoCiHjKZLHFLFjUbUiEqo/w640-h360/ST+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></span></a></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><br /><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Surface tension makes the liquid surface behave like an elastic membrane. Small objects like a small needle or insects </span><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">can float on water. I</span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;">n absence of other external forces,</span><span style="font-family: verdana;"> water drops are spherical - <a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2018/05/surface-to-volume-ratio-for-sphere.html" target="_blank">a sphere has the smallest surface area for a given volume.</a> External effects like gravitational forces make larger drops become more oblate. In nature, <a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2016/10/rainbows-all-you-need-to-know-about.html" target="_blank">rainbows happen because in clouds water droplets are spherica</a>l; little spheres of water drip from a leaking tap - s</span><span style="font-family: verdana;">lide 12 shows more examples:</span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><div style="font-family: "Times New Roman";"><i style="font-family: verdana;"><u>Slide 12:</u></i></div></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEio-L7E3tUXcOGzCPFq-GfK6ShEJLxA9lx5CWBBIW1QLG1D74fBw8Z5g9IVXRdLdGb-BoStMtufB5D-BtsrzqsWQD-YQhSF4-bIabOoAoyeU-h8h0fzjlKxSP-OzzvFPLzTJ5OZCfSqkyc/s1280/examples+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEio-L7E3tUXcOGzCPFq-GfK6ShEJLxA9lx5CWBBIW1QLG1D74fBw8Z5g9IVXRdLdGb-BoStMtufB5D-BtsrzqsWQD-YQhSF4-bIabOoAoyeU-h8h0fzjlKxSP-OzzvFPLzTJ5OZCfSqkyc/w640-h360/examples+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;">Air bubbles inside water are spherical because the trapped air is surrounded by water. Water surface tension forces tend to minimise</span><span style="font-family: verdana;"> the surface area of the bubble causing it to shrink in size resulting in an increase of air pressure inside the bubble. The bubble stabilises when the inward pressure due to surface tension force is equal to the ourward air pressure inside the bubble. Slide 12 shows an example of air bubbles inside a glass of cold tap water left undisturbed for 24 hours (air bubbles form in standing water as air is less soluble in warmer water). </span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u>Capillarity:</u> Capillary action allows water to rise against the force of gravity inside narrow spaces. Capillary action is due to cohesive and adhesive forces. Cohesive forces are attractive forces between molecules of water and give rise to surface tension effects (see slide 10). Adhesive forces are between molecules of liquid water and those in the walls of the solid container (generally glass or plastic). Adhesive forces can be greater than cohesive forces and result in the water being pulled up in the container even against the force of gravity (capillarity or wicking). The rise is inversely proportional to the radius of the tube (in a glass tube of radius 1 mm, water rises by 14 mm). </span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">There are many examples (<a href="https://www.thoughtco.com/definition-of-capillary-action-604866" target="_blank">1</a>, <a href="https://sciencestruck.com/capillary-action-meaning-examples" target="_blank">2</a>, <a href="https://www.chegg.com/learn/physics/introduction-to-physics/capillary-action-in-plants" target="_blank">3</a>) of capillarity and surface tension at work in nature, biology, medicine and industrial processes. </span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u style="color: #2b00fe; font-weight: bold;">Water as a 'Universal' Solvent:</u> <i><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Water is an amazing solvent - water dissolves more substances (but not all) than any other liquid</span>.</i> Water is ubiquitous, and always on the move in the environment and in living systems. Water transports and delivers valuable chemicals, minerals, nutrients to make life possible. <i>What makes water such a good solvent? </i></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><i><br /></i></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Water molecule is a polar molecule with a large electric dipole moment (see slide 2). Remember that while a polar molecule is overall uncharged, the internal distribution of charges is such that there are partially negative (the oxygen side in water) and partially positive regions (the hydrogen sides). The overall effect is that the molecule has a non-zero dipole moment. The dipole moment of water is 1.84 Debye (1 Debye = 3.33 x 10⁻³⁰ Coulomb.meter) and is larger than most other polar liquids. </span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Thus, water molecules feel strong attraction to other polar molecules, so much so that it can disrupt the attractive forces that hold the individual atoms of the molecule together and dissolve them. For more details please click <a href="https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/water-acids-and-bases/hydrogen-bonding-in-water/a/water-as-a-solvent" target="_blank">here.</a></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Fats, oils and most hydrocarbons do not have regions of partial positive and negative charges (they are non-polar molecules). Electric attraction forces between water and oil & fat molecules are weak. Therefore, they do not dissolve in water. </span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvent" target="_blank">Dielectric constant of a liquid provides a rough measure of its polarity - water's strong polarity is indicated by its high dielectric constant of 80.</a> Slide 13 shows dielectric constants of some common solvents and demonstrates how water's extreme value makes it a uniquely effective solvent for salts, ionic compounds and other polar solutes.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><i><u><br /></u></i></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u style="font-style: italic;">Slide 13:</u><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-style: italic; text-align: center; text-decoration-line: underline;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh4h8aPSa4Kg9yj8qDEAtWgC803P3Mc5bbjSCeW2UFgo_gbj393_4dhdqF3TA7AOjGjFJ5-m5_7JXMNvhG9UymRePh5uAHcHTPPkkt6enxKNiC-c6A5Tohg1W1yFFy1ZoJ-ld5oCHyK2Aw/s1280/k+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh4h8aPSa4Kg9yj8qDEAtWgC803P3Mc5bbjSCeW2UFgo_gbj393_4dhdqF3TA7AOjGjFJ5-m5_7JXMNvhG9UymRePh5uAHcHTPPkkt6enxKNiC-c6A5Tohg1W1yFFy1ZoJ-ld5oCHyK2Aw/w640-h360/k+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>It is worth mentioning that nonpolar solvents (shown red in slide 13) are excellent solvents for dissolving other nonpolar solutes (for example, hydrocarbons like wax). A general rule is that '<i>like dissolves like</i>'.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u style="color: red; font-weight: bold;">Final Word:</u> Water in the atmosphere not only provides the necessary blanket to maintain Earth at a habitable temperature, water in the oceans absorbs most of the Sun's energy falling on the Earth's surface and distributes it around the globe. Water in the oceans also dissolves atmospheric CO₂ to reduce its amount in the atmosphere. Dissolved oxygen in water makes aquatic life possible. I shall discuss the extremely important role of atmospheric water and oceans in the next article but leave a summary of how atmospheric water vapour does an amazing job of keeping us all warm. </span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u style="font-style: italic;">Slide 14:</u></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEib6NAfEP_okAiHT4s4EHkvE81rWOaujM110U_JREQ5CT_YjvoJyAAbWjWkNTE5xV020hwgXaOZBIKBV_ydQRqKfDBTX9YDzMB5cydFLk-lv6sE1wyV5m-ZhMC9HVPta2Mamci2prNVFJc/s1280/summary+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEib6NAfEP_okAiHT4s4EHkvE81rWOaujM110U_JREQ5CT_YjvoJyAAbWjWkNTE5xV020hwgXaOZBIKBV_ydQRqKfDBTX9YDzMB5cydFLk-lv6sE1wyV5m-ZhMC9HVPta2Mamci2prNVFJc/w640-h360/summary+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><u style="font-style: italic;">Slide 15:</u><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPJBjfK55iky912zDHh7KluYYZLFteD6_zh_2AXIikyc6QN6tDZHSC2ADp670zJs0jXWMt_SOIJAw1D_n3jNS3y5COWcyhycE5CUrKDvuuiusE4OMwUhOCWZUpp0H8vk1z_Xk1bKuDpp4/s1280/T+window+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPJBjfK55iky912zDHh7KluYYZLFteD6_zh_2AXIikyc6QN6tDZHSC2ADp670zJs0jXWMt_SOIJAw1D_n3jNS3y5COWcyhycE5CUrKDvuuiusE4OMwUhOCWZUpp0H8vk1z_Xk1bKuDpp4/w640-h360/T+window+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><u style="color: #2b00fe; font-weight: bold;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">APPENDIX:</span></u><span style="font-size: large;"> I discuss the science of formation, and properties of </span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_bond" target="_blank"><span style="font-size: large;">hydrogen bonds</span></a><span style="font-size: large;"> in the following. </span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><i><span style="color: #2b00fe;">H-bonds are intermolecular attractive forces that connect two molecules.</span></i> </span><span style="font-family: verdana;">They are formed between a hydrogen atom of one molecule and a lone electron pair of a strongly electronegative atom (nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine - the three most electronegative elements) of another molecule. </span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"> </span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Note: H-bonds are much stronger than the relatively weak attractive <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/van-der-Waals-forces" target="_blank">van der Waal bonds</a> which operate between neutral molecules. Also, H-bonds should not be confused with much stronger <i>intramolecular bonds</i> (covalent, ionic & metallic bonds) which operate <i>within a molecule</i>.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><i><u>Slide A1:</u></i></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><i><u><br /></u></i></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjH6N5rV6nNuTnFrn41DpGeUPqIvDK1IYYA2DezqUDDe69tMtQhWs454aeyf3DvIscfjXPi81hnCWySv_zNsAvAxOJguuXJ85XxufYvt6uI9s4-oUsMJI6wPaoGz0Dc85lkMsdfPDBZIsU/s1280/PT+1+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjH6N5rV6nNuTnFrn41DpGeUPqIvDK1IYYA2DezqUDDe69tMtQhWs454aeyf3DvIscfjXPi81hnCWySv_zNsAvAxOJguuXJ85XxufYvt6uI9s4-oUsMJI6wPaoGz0Dc85lkMsdfPDBZIsU/w640-h360/PT+1+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: left;"><i style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><u>Slide A2:</u></i></div><div style="text-align: left;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjJx2Ujsks3Vm0uXK-XlEkXVQ3t9VyVxxFz_6ROUPTsOBakS1QG-ESDBW5oT8BpGgGwi1Fi8We7SPQ00CiMM1m2oPlYwOyzp2jf8rmvBLCdZSA0S3Zp6qZQpYuk65SR6_YDn7D51Mqz3p4/s1280/peiodic+table+2+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjJx2Ujsks3Vm0uXK-XlEkXVQ3t9VyVxxFz_6ROUPTsOBakS1QG-ESDBW5oT8BpGgGwi1Fi8We7SPQ00CiMM1m2oPlYwOyzp2jf8rmvBLCdZSA0S3Zp6qZQpYuk65SR6_YDn7D51Mqz3p4/w640-h360/peiodic+table+2+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">H-bonds are formed between functional groups F-H, O-H or N-H of two molecules and are represented by 3 dots or dashes between H of one molecule and N, O or F of a neighbouring molecule. H, N, O and F have the smallest sizes of all atoms (slide A2) and with the greatest difference in electronegativity between H and N,O,F atoms (slide A1). Functional groups F-H, O-H and N-H have highly concentrated partial charges (see slide 2 in the main text) and can form relatively strong electrical dipoles. The individual molecular dipoles strongly attract to form the so-called hydrogen bonds between molecules. The obvious examples are the three hydrides NH₃, H₂O and HF (see slide A3) of which H₂O has the most extensive hydrogen bonding - one molecule of water can H-bond with four other water molecules, giving water many unique and extreme properties (without these life on earth will not be possible!). Slides A3 and A4 explain the situation, also see slide 4a in the main text:</span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><i style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><u>Slide A3:</u></i><div style="text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div></div></div><div style="text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjV1iaGay4xncBf7n0ryoWV2a8seFCAZeffIbMgJa4utGRam2WgbBlyQjvHDgu3oASjHMv1PZFJDQZkQ_hv8JBhBfyB0LtVyN1P-Y1Pp5ko333QS4zwCIdlM3qMpn6xv4XFbyhY084PMRI/s1280/HBONDS+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjV1iaGay4xncBf7n0ryoWV2a8seFCAZeffIbMgJa4utGRam2WgbBlyQjvHDgu3oASjHMv1PZFJDQZkQ_hv8JBhBfyB0LtVyN1P-Y1Pp5ko333QS4zwCIdlM3qMpn6xv4XFbyhY084PMRI/w640-h360/HBONDS+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><i><u>Slide A4:</u></i></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><i><u><br /></u></i></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLApyWZ7kDBN6Oat9J4wWaTgKc27G2KXPtyEx8yg0LDKMcJyJtzDJLbCONJWWognbxtj-M1iEsIhHZa6qRcizo0vXWIdqlnCxNLKgzLSXP2WwGemv0WC0vy2ru0pY_129j3euW-AEITmw/s1280/water+2+jpeg.jpg" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiLApyWZ7kDBN6Oat9J4wWaTgKc27G2KXPtyEx8yg0LDKMcJyJtzDJLbCONJWWognbxtj-M1iEsIhHZa6qRcizo0vXWIdqlnCxNLKgzLSXP2WwGemv0WC0vy2ru0pY_129j3euW-AEITmw/w640-h360/water+2+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><br /><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Hydrogen bonds play a vital role in determining many of the physical and chemical properties of water. H-bonds are also fundamental to the <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_bond" target="_blank">stability of DNA double helix structure,</a> folding and managing 3-D shapes of proteins and formation of many organic polymers like cellulose etc.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: xx-small;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span style="color: #2b00fe;"><i>The fact that a water molecule can form four relatively strong H-bonds with its neighbours gives liquid water strong cohesive (sticking to other water molecules) and adhesive (sticking to molecules of other substances) properties.</i></span> To make a water molecule free, one needs to break several H-bonds and this requires input of lot of energy. In the main text, I discuss how water is unique in having extremely large latent heats of fusion and vaporisation, very high melting and boiling points, abnormally large specific heat capacity, surface tension and an anomalous density-temperature profile. These extreme properties are due to a water molecule's ability to form H-bonds with other water molecules.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Adhesion also plays a fundamental role in nature - capillarity allows a plant to transport water to all its branches and leaves. </span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u style="color: red; font-weight: bold;">H-Bonds in Other Chemical Compounds:</u> Hydrogen bonds are present in a large number of compounds. In the following slides, I mention a few such bond formations that are relevant to biological molecules, but refer you to the general literature for details.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><i style="color: #2b00fe; font-weight: bold; text-decoration-line: underline;">DNA:</i> The double helix structure owes its stability to hydrogen bonds between two set of base pairs A---T and C---G. AT and CG are the only bonds found in DNA structure. AT H-bonds are H<span style="color: red;">---</span>O and N<span style="color: red;">---</span>H while CG bonds are formed as H<span style="color: red;">---</span>O, N<span style="color: red;">---</span>H and O<span style="color: red;">---</span>H.</span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><i style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><u>Slide A6:</u></i></div><div style="text-align: left;"><i style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><u><br /></u></i></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-size: xx-large; font-style: italic; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbf8xJkcGpl_eavFORLQQDoH2cX3P466WINaCXjryit6ROhFqHXUILtY1sfTg3pqe_7IiSsHGjM_7d-krkTYw5Qi7cb2kfTuHijj5vkdcA5gs-4Kz_mKJSjOHPTHaFFjLdivwTcBdeBoU/s1280/DNA+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgbf8xJkcGpl_eavFORLQQDoH2cX3P466WINaCXjryit6ROhFqHXUILtY1sfTg3pqe_7IiSsHGjM_7d-krkTYw5Qi7cb2kfTuHijj5vkdcA5gs-4Kz_mKJSjOHPTHaFFjLdivwTcBdeBoU/w640-h360/DNA+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;"><u style="color: #2b00fe; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;"><br /></u></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;"><u style="color: #2b00fe; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">Cellulose:</u> is the most abundant organic polymer, making up to 90% of cotton and 50% of wood, is important constituent of plant cell walls and extensively used to make paper, textiles and other industrial materials. <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulose" target="_blank">Cellulose is a straight chain polymer consisting of several hundred to many thousands of linked </a></span></span><span style="font-size: large;">(C₆H₁₂O₅)</span><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellulose" style="font-size: x-large;" target="_blank"> units (is a polysaccharide - many sugars)</a><span style="font-size: large;"><span> The </span><span>C₆H₁₂O₅ structure </span><span>has multiple hydroxyl groups (-OH groups). Hydrogen atoms of the hydroxyl groups from one chain form hydrogen bonds with oxygen atoms on the same or on a neighbouring chain, holding the chains firmly side-by-side (see slide A7), forming microfibrils (thin fibre-like strands). <i>Because of H-bonding, microfibrils are extremely strong, tough and inflexible, and provide cellulose high structural strength.</i></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><i><u><span style="font-size: large;">Slide A7:</span></u></i></div><div style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh34tCmB7qzQdKJxnOD26AJiRQGsI8Ty23u4KyhdSgNw3BRAK12PyhYekX5dAI37RPRLP2bI9DINv4ouoidyD1LkdBepLR6L4jEBlyDv5U4Ips0OvUx_FKlW7doEakG0t3hWtt4a6d9Sdg/s1280/cellulose+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh34tCmB7qzQdKJxnOD26AJiRQGsI8Ty23u4KyhdSgNw3BRAK12PyhYekX5dAI37RPRLP2bI9DINv4ouoidyD1LkdBepLR6L4jEBlyDv5U4Ips0OvUx_FKlW7doEakG0t3hWtt4a6d9Sdg/w640-h360/cellulose+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span><u style="color: #2b00fe; font-size: xx-large; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">Proteins:</u><span style="font-size: x-large;"> </span><span style="font-size: large;"><a href="http://www.brainkart.com/article/Functions-of-proteins_34017/" target="_blank">Proteins</a> are integral part of the body, and are responsible for the support and repair of body tissue. All enzymes are proteins, as are antibodies, haemoglobin in blood, myacin in muscles etc. All proteins are made up from 20 amino acids which are joined together by <a href="http://www.brainkart.com/article/Proteins-and-their-structure_34072/" target="_blank">covalent peptide bonds</a> (slide A8). In a prptide bond, carbonyl group (C=O) of one amino acid is covelently bonded to the amino (N-H) group of another amino acid. Proteins are polypeptides and may contain hundreds of peptide bonds. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span><span style="font-size: large;">The -C=O and -N-H groups are polar and can form H-bonds between diffrent peptide bonds. <i><span style="color: #2b00fe;">Hydrogen bonds are responsible for secondary structrures of proteins and for their functions.</span></i> Slide A8 (adapted from Wiki) shows an example of H-bond formation between two polypeptide chains.</span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><br /></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span><i><u><span style="font-size: large;">Slide A8:</span></u></i></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span><i><u><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></u></i></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span><span><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-style: italic; text-align: center; text-decoration-line: underline;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEit9MoHOpgN4D7memZ4e9AEQRTJCUJfc59Ud6KNKpkXXyot8cqbTomsyKBGMt2OkUVc27aUCTCpX2RtPOqoMcrC-sVTc3pYDRFXmZEbbkHDkzscPWgVDWnVcDVmJrYs2zy3vWlharOITQQ/s1280/protein+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEit9MoHOpgN4D7memZ4e9AEQRTJCUJfc59Ud6KNKpkXXyot8cqbTomsyKBGMt2OkUVc27aUCTCpX2RtPOqoMcrC-sVTc3pYDRFXmZEbbkHDkzscPWgVDWnVcDVmJrYs2zy3vWlharOITQQ/w640-h360/protein+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><span style="font-size: large;">The above examples demostrate that H-bonds play a primary role in the functioning of most biological systems. </span></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span><span><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span><span><span><u style="font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Copyright:</u><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;"> </span><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium;"><i>Some figures are modified Wiki figur</i>es but m</span><i><span style="font-size: medium;">ost figures have been drawn by myself and may be used provided the blog address is acknowledged. </span><span style="font-size: large;"> </span></i></span></span></span></span></div></span></div><p></p>Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-656274836058069289.post-30510043557909294082021-01-06T15:56:00.011+00:002023-02-27T10:11:54.006+00:00Colours in the Environment: PART 1: Sky, Clouds, Sunsets, Twilights, NLCs; Some Fascinating Physics in Play; Interaction of Light with Matter<p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"> <i style="background-color: #f6f6f6;"><span style="color: red;"><a href="http://ektalks.blogspot.co.uk/2015/11/blogger-profile-ravi-singhal.html" style="color: #de7008;">Blog Contents and Who am I?</a></span></i></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><i style="background-color: #f6f6f6;"><br /></i></span></p><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: #f6f6f6;"><i><u>Click on a slide to view its fulll page image</u></i></span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><i style="background-color: #f6f6f6;"><br /></i></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span>Our lives will be less interesting without the display of wonderful ever-changing panoramic colours in the environment - the sky is blue during the day but at sunrise and sunset it turns red/orange; clouds are white and grey but take some striking hues; oceans are blue or deep green, and may even look red sometimes. Ice is considered white - then why a glacier, a big chunk of ice, deep blue? We have all experienced the surprise and delight when the <a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2016/10/rainbows-all-you-need-to-know-about.html" target="_blank">majestic rainbow</a> suddenly appears -- a double rainbow is just awesome</span><span>. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Some fascinating physics is in play to enrich our lives with these (and many other) wonderful displays. <i><span style="color: #2b00fe;">The physics is about the way sunlight interacts with particulate matter and gas molecules (mostly oxygen and nitrogen) in the atmosphere. Light interaction with water molecules in liquid (swimming pools/ocean) and solid state (glaciers) is completely different.</span></i> The physics of rainbows is different still and has already been discussed in detail <a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2016/10/rainbows-all-you-need-to-know-about.html" target="_blank">here</a>. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">In the atmosphere, how the particles and gas molecules <i>scatter</i> sunlight depends on their size, number density and on the colour (wavelength) of light. </span><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span>In liquid water and ice, the internal structure of water molecules determines how</span><span> longer wavelengths (yellow and red colours) are removed more efficiently than shorter 'blue' wavelengths. </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;">In this article, I shall d</span><span style="font-size: large;">elve into the science </span><span style="font-size: large;">of colours in the environment with <i><span style="color: #2b00fe;">the aim to convey a greater understanding of how light and matter interact.</span></i> In Part 1, I shall discuss the colours of the sky and clouds, and deal with the case of bulk water and ice in Part 2.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><u style="font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;">You might also like</u>________________________________________</span></span></p><p><span style="font-size: medium;"><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2016/10/rainbows-all-you-need-to-know-about.html" style="font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; letter-spacing: -1px;" target="_blank">Physics of Rainbows; Moonbows; Fogbows</a><span face="Verdana, sans-serif" style="background-color: #f6f6f6; color: #9e5205; letter-spacing: -1px;"> - All You Need to Know - </span><span face="Verdana, sans-serif" style="background-color: #f6f6f6; color: #9e5205; letter-spacing: -1px;">an Outreach Feature for the Community</span></span></p><h3 class="post-title entry-title" itemprop="name" style="background-color: #f6f6f6; color: #9e5205; font-family: Verdana, sans-serif; font-stretch: normal; font-variant-east-asian: normal; font-variant-numeric: normal; letter-spacing: -1px; line-height: normal; margin: 0px;"><span style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal;"><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2020/10/colour-of-objects-visible-light.html" target="_blank">Colour of Objects</a>: Visible Light Spectrum; Primary Colours; Optical Illusions; How Do Colours Work?</span></h3><div><span style="font-size: medium; font-weight: normal;">_______________________________________________________________________</span></div><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">To maintain continuity of presentation, some background information will be included in the Appendix.</span></p><p><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><u>PART 1:</u> <u>Why is the sky blue during the day but at sunset it turns red?</u></b></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><u>Slide 1</u></b></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHCqvCWso3pPqKhw0F_hte72vZZVsDBEvGStzX6aslurfFivPCAbDZWsT1IZY2lrnTjeHXDBLJ4uG09SfeKUumVhbuiWV2yCUead0cThVWB5isg7ruwReZTp3ML_F6pLbiSplbiw8aU3Q/s1280/Sky+is+Bluejpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhHCqvCWso3pPqKhw0F_hte72vZZVsDBEvGStzX6aslurfFivPCAbDZWsT1IZY2lrnTjeHXDBLJ4uG09SfeKUumVhbuiWV2yCUead0cThVWB5isg7ruwReZTp3ML_F6pLbiSplbiw8aU3Q/w640-h360/Sky+is+Bluejpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: verdana; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: verdana; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: verdana; text-align: left;"><span style="font-size: large;">As you would expect, the spectrum of light (wavelengths present) during the day and at sunset/sunrise are very different. The detailed spectra depend on atmospheric conditions like pollution, clouds etc., but the following slide is a good example and shows the main features:</span></span></div><p></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><u>Slide 2</u></b></span></p><p><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbINb6RTMOfHkfqV_iFCia3b2sMRKL02jrojTHChyNVMNPZ6_zrxR7Jyy2Ezjas6EPko-EEtEZn0PgMGa0sgbrT00fdzuVjSPAEjgq4l33M_B125JRC2SRjHK4HKfj_mUale16Jl3gDU8/s1280/Spectra+skyjpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhbINb6RTMOfHkfqV_iFCia3b2sMRKL02jrojTHChyNVMNPZ6_zrxR7Jyy2Ezjas6EPko-EEtEZn0PgMGa0sgbrT00fdzuVjSPAEjgq4l33M_B125JRC2SRjHK4HKfj_mUale16Jl3gDU8/w640-h360/Spectra+skyjpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">The way light is scattered by particles in the Earth's atmosphere is responsible for the changes in the spectrum from day to sunset. First, we take a look at the atmospheric constituents and then study the scattering of light by these particles. <i><span style="color: red;">Without the atmosphere, there will be no scattering of light and the Sun will always look white and the sky pitch dark.</span></i> The photograph of the Sun and surrounding sky taken from space where there are no atmospheric particles (eg from the space station or the Moon) is shown in the following slide:</span><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u style="font-weight: bold;">Slide 3</u> </span><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"> <div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjClrzSqoRw38pYqradyB5wPEQFZqhMldMhdBJ7phEFJ0M3di9dgFAJihpSjnM46HyYE8zls_dYQQipbiPuJc9oZmiBJ8pbDl3756iw-P1S33ocWE82UoUNr1oe88IhGDr9pqKO28Hc2aI/s1280/sun+space+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjClrzSqoRw38pYqradyB5wPEQFZqhMldMhdBJ7phEFJ0M3di9dgFAJihpSjnM46HyYE8zls_dYQQipbiPuJc9oZmiBJ8pbDl3756iw-P1S33ocWE82UoUNr1oe88IhGDr9pqKO28Hc2aI/w640-h360/sun+space+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div></span></div><div><u style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;"><br /></u></div><div><u style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">The Atmosphere and its Constituents:</u><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"> The atmosphere extends to an altitude of 100+ km and is divided into several layers - the most important are shown in slide 4. Troposphere is the most relevant for our discussion - it contains ~80% of the atmosphere by mass and ~99% of all water and particulate matter. <span style="color: red;"><i>C</i></span><i><span style="color: red;">louds and weather happen in the troposphere.</span></i> Particle size determines how light is scattered by them. This is summarized in slides 4 & 5.</span></div><div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><u>Slide 4</u></b></span></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjl_xsdzhNnCwKcWoXwu-0DK6Psl1tS32IH49zT4wbVKUIWC-5wz1dFKDUf2eLL_HN1wLWNUF7MWKgWr9u3EY6JC9uLqiSVEDuGGmr4TsQrHKmvJBKRwaEZZpXI1rcv6coE_XWG9aNIgD4/s1280/Atm+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjl_xsdzhNnCwKcWoXwu-0DK6Psl1tS32IH49zT4wbVKUIWC-5wz1dFKDUf2eLL_HN1wLWNUF7MWKgWr9u3EY6JC9uLqiSVEDuGGmr4TsQrHKmvJBKRwaEZZpXI1rcv6coE_XWG9aNIgD4/w640-h360/Atm+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><u>Slide 5</u></b><br /></span><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhaZfAW5QucY5cb9nK9ckhoDvOJmlAffTGBQAcgJTFJPTF07WVLpYoU6cNlhaYhkn1cJ5JBSBtSHUie4Ah9nkYkMZ7igGv08E-KsJxTBFj01R4o7TkS6qAdUrl5HY8lahyUWo7lzFuCDE8/s1280/particle+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhaZfAW5QucY5cb9nK9ckhoDvOJmlAffTGBQAcgJTFJPTF07WVLpYoU6cNlhaYhkn1cJ5JBSBtSHUie4Ah9nkYkMZ7igGv08E-KsJxTBFj01R4o7TkS6qAdUrl5HY8lahyUWo7lzFuCDE8/w640-h360/particle+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b style="text-align: left;"><u><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Scattering of Light by Atmospheric Particles:</span></u></b></div><p style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span>I have added a brief description of the physics of how light interacts with matter particles in the Appendix.</span></span></p><p style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span>It is convenient to identify three scattering regimes (see last column of slide 5). The important number is the scattering parameter </span>(x = 2 𝜋 r/𝜆) which tells us how big or small a particle of radius r is relative to the wavelength of visible light (𝜆); in our case, 𝜆 covers the range from 450 nm to 700 nm. <span style="color: #2b00fe;"><u>For g</u></span><i><span style="color: #2b00fe;"><u>as molecules</u> (oxygen and nitrogen), the radius is equal to 0.15 nm and x is of the order of 0.0015 - much smaller than 1; and <u>only Rayleigh scattering needs to be considered</u>.</span></i> Mie scattering is important when x is of the order of 0.1 to 1.0. For larger values of x, the scattering is called geometrical (aka optical). Slides 6,7, 8 & 9 explain the situation. <span style="color: #2b00fe;">O<i>nly Rayleigh scattering is strongly wavelength sensitive (1/</i></span></span><span style="color: #2b00fe;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">𝜆⁴ dependence) </span><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><i>with <u>blue light at 450 nm scattered almost five times more strongly than red light at 650 nm. </u></i></span><i style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><u> </u></i></span></p><p style="text-align: left;"><i style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><b><u>Slide 6</u></b></i></p><p style="text-align: left;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4vAJbdOxQaVGmX34bwPWTgtkyDr4tG9bkmieDOTG9ePCNSqKSmPS_M4jDVbS9F8m_VcEYTAMHJ4yPreDY2Xh5sGjLqm_MdghL27dfE17XayVG5gRPotHz87IWzt8KKceGPvwA7BusRP8/s1280/slide+6+jpeg.jpg" style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4vAJbdOxQaVGmX34bwPWTgtkyDr4tG9bkmieDOTG9ePCNSqKSmPS_M4jDVbS9F8m_VcEYTAMHJ4yPreDY2Xh5sGjLqm_MdghL27dfE17XayVG5gRPotHz87IWzt8KKceGPvwA7BusRP8/w640-h360/slide+6+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></p><p style="text-align: left;"><i style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><b></b></i></p><p style="text-align: left;"><i style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><b><i><i><i><b><u>Slide 7</u></b></i></i></i></b></i></p><p style="text-align: left;"><i style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><b><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhq9kvu3_7ZGkhLC-DsLqeWG1-JxdQ5uhf1wSy_HTPCG-2euFEu2_3qi0EbmgbOYK6GtqwVhqsNHXIUhAEvk3eE9SdyksDfvQKKYx9peaQXmnKHyRaxamN_dXRwvVzkQOjSPtoYNRm3x64/s1280/slide+7+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhq9kvu3_7ZGkhLC-DsLqeWG1-JxdQ5uhf1wSy_HTPCG-2euFEu2_3qi0EbmgbOYK6GtqwVhqsNHXIUhAEvk3eE9SdyksDfvQKKYx9peaQXmnKHyRaxamN_dXRwvVzkQOjSPtoYNRm3x64/w640-h360/slide+7+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></b></i></p><i style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><b><p style="text-align: left;"><i><i><i><b><u>Slide 8</u></b></i></i></i></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><i><i><i><b><u><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-29DQafphCt3TUe9ydsyeUmak7bVIJENSUzejhtL6iG87LwZ6c13RM3dn9xLNP3nxzbIMSJBWm3Qw_JfQ3ynnwrVl2046J7wL6DA-f04i8ZcepNiKPqhc9BT-932tqRkYo0WMzkUKK5w/s1280/mie+scattering+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg-29DQafphCt3TUe9ydsyeUmak7bVIJENSUzejhtL6iG87LwZ6c13RM3dn9xLNP3nxzbIMSJBWm3Qw_JfQ3ynnwrVl2046J7wL6DA-f04i8ZcepNiKPqhc9BT-932tqRkYo0WMzkUKK5w/w640-h360/mie+scattering+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></u></b></i></i></i></div></b><i><i><b><u>Slide 9</u></b></i></i></i></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><i><u><br /></u></i></b></span><i style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><b><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYC1GZ0SNUjh4ZcYBDE8IDltt67eE8Cq_3n5fFajwXNgJG1w8mydhS-Vrhb5XQZby1txl2TW0a9JcBrP2pHzakuK_itSpTngcBX_N9TXH5WdB9Wr6yHo8_JtQJP0vRrzl56I1xxSm-L4c/s1280/slide+9+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhYC1GZ0SNUjh4ZcYBDE8IDltt67eE8Cq_3n5fFajwXNgJG1w8mydhS-Vrhb5XQZby1txl2TW0a9JcBrP2pHzakuK_itSpTngcBX_N9TXH5WdB9Wr6yHo8_JtQJP0vRrzl56I1xxSm-L4c/w640-h360/slide+9+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div></b></i><p></p><p></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">The probability of light scattering from a particle increases as particle size gets bigger. Very roughly, Mie scattering can be >10000 stronger than Rayleigh scattering (see slide A2) while optical scattering increases as the square of the particle radius (<a href="https://patarnott.com/atms749/pdf/MeasureMieandRayleighScatAJP.pdf" target="_blank">click here for quantitative details</a>). However, note that <span style="color: #2b00fe;"><i>the number density of molecules that cause Rayleigh scattering is extremely large (see slide 5), and at higher altitudes the contribution of Rayleigh scattering is the most important. </i></span><i> </i>Even with the large number of gas molecules (of the order of 10²⁵ per m³), a light photon only experiences a single scattering event in passing through the Earth's atmosphere. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span>The density of aerosols at high altitudes is very low, and only</span><i> at altitudes less than 5 km Mie scattering by aerosols in the troposphere becomes significant. At even lower altitudes, geometric scattering by clouds and pollution particulates may dominate - depending on the weather and contaminants generated by natural and/or human activities. </i></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Another interesting feature to note is the <i><span style="color: #2b00fe;">angular distribution of scattered light </span></i>- Rayleigh scattering shows a modest forward and backward peaking with only half as much light scattered along perpendicular directions (scattering is peanut shaped - see slide 6). Mie scattering is forward peaking and becomes more so for bigger particles. In optical scattering, due to multiple scattering effects, all wavelengths are scattered more or less uniformly in all directions; for bigger particles like raindrops or ice crystals, light can enter into the particle body and produce phenomena like the rainbows. </span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u style="color: #2b00fe; font-weight: bold;">The Sky is Blue During the Day:</u> We are now ready to not only explain why the sky appears blue during the day but also to analyse the varying shades of blue when one scans the sky. Basically, the variation in blueness of the sky is due to the mixing of Rayleigh scattering (RC) with different amounts of Mie and optical scattering (MO). </span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u><i><b>Slide 10</b></i></u></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u><i><b><br /></b></i></u></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEizGFEdtdfSpX4HRf-aVcpEGuwBbbc4aqjXej_akLYYgQXZSjfc6LjA0OXFVZsmN4V_h5ISKvQNzaKax6U-MZU0Na7PDglObeNat-DrqMlAjTzeqpCUXDQ51z0kH8uLg4GYu1eJ9aSl520/s1280/sky+and+mixing+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEizGFEdtdfSpX4HRf-aVcpEGuwBbbc4aqjXej_akLYYgQXZSjfc6LjA0OXFVZsmN4V_h5ISKvQNzaKax6U-MZU0Na7PDglObeNat-DrqMlAjTzeqpCUXDQ51z0kH8uLg4GYu1eJ9aSl520/w640-h360/sky+and+mixing+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><p></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Slide 10 is best viewed by clicking on it for a full page image. The blueness of the sky at various points is well reproduced by mixing different amounts of MO to RC. In fact a full spectrum of blue hues from quite sharp to very soft may be obtained this way. This is explained in slide 11.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><i><u>Slide 11</u></i></b></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8SFQHQ39ZK38iNUGaDFLRrRrW9-SrsFFgrJjUvo_-udUcvHV4BELUsLuAZ_u-0Hto43zk1OWWJoMHI1wwxdXRykXysMVVYkOCteZU3y0KxbPnWPR16sxssLiVvouLC4u3Jn7PphewHS0/s1280/mixing+of+Ra+and+Mie+jpeg.jpg" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8SFQHQ39ZK38iNUGaDFLRrRrW9-SrsFFgrJjUvo_-udUcvHV4BELUsLuAZ_u-0Hto43zk1OWWJoMHI1wwxdXRykXysMVVYkOCteZU3y0KxbPnWPR16sxssLiVvouLC4u3Jn7PphewHS0/w640-h360/mixing+of+Ra+and+Mie+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">It is not advised to look directly at the Sun which is more or less white with some yellowish hue. The sky near the Sun is less blue than the sky at angles further away from it. In regions close to the Sun, some blue light is indeed scattered out from the white sunlight by Rayleigh scattering but the overall light is still nearly white. Slide 12 explains the colour of the sky near the Sun. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Remember that when you look at any part of the sky you are observing its features in a very small angular range (much less than a degree) and the light from the Sun can only reach you if it is scattered out of sunrays by some object. For example, the line of sight along the direction YA shows how the scattering by aerosols (Mie and Optical scattering), redirects white light from sunrays towards the observer and dilutes the blueness of the sky due to RC. <i>In the absence of any atmosphere, the Sun will appear as a white disc surrounded by black sky</i> (Slide 3). </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><i><u>Slide 12</u></i></b></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><i><u><br /></u></i></b></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEip7fulwlqPRZXvFwl4TJ8O_mROGBVUti_-uuPULuwoo8WAIXA_VPpHVMpsp2Eqz_jDIa8_3vhyphenhyphenMzeg4lFjaP9gfpCMYNPYwc7Xv2HFW5ykbyUMwIPXBSFgx8D7gtqLWoL9W5n7MeVS_xk/s1280/contribution+jpeg.jpg" style="font-family: "Times New Roman"; font-size: medium; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEip7fulwlqPRZXvFwl4TJ8O_mROGBVUti_-uuPULuwoo8WAIXA_VPpHVMpsp2Eqz_jDIa8_3vhyphenhyphenMzeg4lFjaP9gfpCMYNPYwc7Xv2HFW5ykbyUMwIPXBSFgx8D7gtqLWoL9W5n7MeVS_xk/w640-h360/contribution+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">The contribution from Mie scattering decreases as one looks away from the Sun and the sky becomes progressively deeper blue. Along the horizon away from the Sun, the path length of sunrays in the lower atmosphere is rather large and while Mie scattering contributes little, opti</span>cal scattering by larger aerosol particles becomes important and the sky colour has much more whiteness (see slide 1).</span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">An interesting observation of the scattering of light from the atmosphere is made by high flying U2 planes. They fly at about 20 km altitude - above the troposphere - and can receive Rayleigh scattered blue light from gas molecules in the atmosphere. Also note that the outer space looks pitch dark - there are no molecules or aerosols there to scatter sunlight back towards the Earth.</span></p><p><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><u>Slide 12a</u></b></span></p><p><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b></b></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIb5V7jtx9ObifYxp01tgK_he70EHtN3In2mD6exLWkX9UOSF2YdbvOR3XQ-P0kIavIn6WtlIfLrLZq4SsRC_oa1D_TERrDKXzp1K9jHYmZZ-wa-Du_bI-zFNFNTDOImVgILR3031gArM/s1280/view+from+20+km+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjIb5V7jtx9ObifYxp01tgK_he70EHtN3In2mD6exLWkX9UOSF2YdbvOR3XQ-P0kIavIn6WtlIfLrLZq4SsRC_oa1D_TERrDKXzp1K9jHYmZZ-wa-Du_bI-zFNFNTDOImVgILR3031gArM/w640-h360/view+from+20+km+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></b></span></div><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u style="font-weight: bold;"><p><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u style="font-weight: bold;"><br /></u></span></p>The Colour of Clouds:</u> During the day, <a href="https://www.zmescience.com/science/types-of-clouds/" target="_blank">clouds</a> are largely white with shades of grey. The base of large clouds is generally dark (slide 10 and 13).</span><p></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span><a href="https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/image-gallery?field_learning_zone_category_tid=1" target="_blank">Clouds</a> </span><span>consist of water droplets and/or ice crystals. Majority of the clouds</span><span> are in the troposphere and come in many shapes and sizes. Clouds form by water molecules condensing on an aerosol particle (dust, sea-salt, soot etc. typically of size around 0.0002 mm or 0.2 micron). Cloud droplets may vary in size from about 20 to 3000 microns. </span><a href="https://scijinks.gov/clouds/" target="_blank">Low clouds</a><span> are found at altitudes below about 2 km, but high clouds can form at heights from 5 to 20 km or even higher - they are generally thin and <a href="https://scied.ucar.edu/learning-zone/clouds/cloud-types" target="_blank">are not associated with weather.</a> </span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Cloud thickness is an important parameter for our discussion; it varies enormously depending on the cloud type. Clouds can be quite thin - a few hundred meters (e.g. cirrus) to > 10 km in thickness (e.g. cumulonimbus). </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Sunlight is efficiently reflected by water droplets and ice crystals - more or less isotropically (equally in all directions) - very little light is actually absorbed by the clouds (slide 13). </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><i><u>Slide 13</u></i></b></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg11CLhah7BIGMjSFFUtutWawcbwTNiqMkcq1u_kY6yj88lzTrezwkTb5xxfegie_fUcktmqq6CCj_4g2VhGHYZ9V-U9elxotbUEHnvkKJDW0fWDNgcvrgp3ZyvTo6JoXXeZpsqfYHV46o/s1280/clouds+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg11CLhah7BIGMjSFFUtutWawcbwTNiqMkcq1u_kY6yj88lzTrezwkTb5xxfegie_fUcktmqq6CCj_4g2VhGHYZ9V-U9elxotbUEHnvkKJDW0fWDNgcvrgp3ZyvTo6JoXXeZpsqfYHV46o/w640-h360/clouds+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><br /></span></div>Generally, light does not penetrate more than one km thickness of the cloud and the base of a thick cloud appears dark (slides 1, 10, 14). </span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><i><u>Slide 14</u></i></b></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><i><u><br /></u></i></b></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-size: x-large; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgM1kadcZV5X_hUqMo8ltOsqEE-HobDB6lybrIcvVmWFbpr8Vg05GWKeISf_3RCwaGQgqW_OqLc-f-vKw0e5LxgnxXTl_6b9HIXyY_ptNFcuMvolsSPjYJBSi45Zb7WA_63myvC3jUrVAM/s1280/Clouds+white+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgM1kadcZV5X_hUqMo8ltOsqEE-HobDB6lybrIcvVmWFbpr8Vg05GWKeISf_3RCwaGQgqW_OqLc-f-vKw0e5LxgnxXTl_6b9HIXyY_ptNFcuMvolsSPjYJBSi45Zb7WA_63myvC3jUrVAM/w640-h360/Clouds+white+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div style="font-size: x-large; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;"><u style="color: red;"><br /></u></div><div style="font-size: x-large; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;"><u style="color: red;">Why Are Sunsets Red?</u></div><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Sunsets and rainbows are widely photographed and viewed natural phenomena. We are fascinated by the panoramic display of the large variety of colours at sunsets - these displays do not last for a long time and that only adds to their fascination. If clouds are present, sunsets illuminate the sky with colours ranging from yellow, orange, pink to deep red. </span><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Why?</span></div><div><div style="text-align: center;"><i style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="color: #2b00fe;"><span style="font-size: large;">(Our discussion applies equally to sunrise; sunsets tend to be more impressive due to larger concentration of particulate matter in the lower layers of the atmosphere in the evenings)</span></span></i></div><div style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span><span style="font-size: large;">The transition from day to night is more complex and the details are not generally appreciated. Starting with sunset, several different stages happen - these have their origin in disparate physical processes. I have briefly discussed these in the appendix. </span></span></span></div><div style="text-align: center;"><i style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><span style="color: #2b00fe;"><br /></span></i></div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><i><u>Slide 15</u></i></b></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><i><u><br /></u></i></b><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglWapsQjDvblPaoD3Ezrt0rcG2n2mbcx-k183firRCQjHw7H8Naz6SEG-XNm087_8k7HxPeGCes05nQ3d5_6WoMsDdoi9qn3LQdMf-1se56tYBpsEP0c2RPfyfs2zqGRqYhQ6o6WFeJlU/s1280/sunsetjpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEglWapsQjDvblPaoD3Ezrt0rcG2n2mbcx-k183firRCQjHw7H8Naz6SEG-XNm087_8k7HxPeGCes05nQ3d5_6WoMsDdoi9qn3LQdMf-1se56tYBpsEP0c2RPfyfs2zqGRqYhQ6o6WFeJlU/w640-h360/sunsetjpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><b><i><u>Slide 16</u></i></b></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><i><u><br /></u></i></b><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiT6V9ihtWBaRUHHwXNc6Q2oZdVBLLTgQ89vA7bjBEyBtaW1OwmMu9HoVuwBXX2-_jprCdK_uS6iKs18bMHdbnfQIJOnmZhjCp4RfxtqDzQytt1xlhCEXA0ptNgN3Nu38iIk83Ck_SWNP8/s1280/sunset2jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiT6V9ihtWBaRUHHwXNc6Q2oZdVBLLTgQ89vA7bjBEyBtaW1OwmMu9HoVuwBXX2-_jprCdK_uS6iKs18bMHdbnfQIJOnmZhjCp4RfxtqDzQytt1xlhCEXA0ptNgN3Nu38iIk83Ck_SWNP8/w640-h360/sunset2jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>In simple terms, the colours seen at sunset represent the relative absence of blue and green in the sunlight that we receive (slides 2 and A1). Clouds are highly reflective and the the reddish hue at sunset is due to bottom of the clouds scattering light incident on them - light that is rich in longer wavelengths. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">There are two important reasons why light at sunset is blue deficient. At sunset, </span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span>(1) Light travels in the atmosphere through a <u>much greater</u> distance than during the day and </span>a light photon is likely to be scattered multiple times. </span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">(2) Light passes through the lowest part of the atmosphere where large size aerosols are found. </span></div><div><p><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u style="font-style: italic;">Path Length at Sunset in Atmosphere:</u></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Slide A3 (appendix) gives a simple derivation of the path length D through the troposphere (of height 10 km) for various elevations of the Sun. D increases to over 500 km when the Sun elevation is 1⁰. At this elevation, to reach the observer, light will travel 2500 km in the stratosphere. Actually,<a href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/atmos/redsun.html" target="_blank"> at sunset refraction in the atmospheric layers increases the path length even more.</a> <i>For such long path lengths, light scatters many times from gas molecules (Rayleigh scattering); on each scattering, five times more blue light is scattered out of the sunrays (and hence lost) than red light. By the time light reaches the observer, it is highly deficient in blue and green, and consists mainly of longer reddish wavelengths. </i></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span>Secondly, the lower atmosphere consists of aerosols particles of larger sizes which efficiently scatter light in all directions - this further reduces the amount of blue light (as well as longer wavelengths). <i>The result is an overall a</i></span><i>ttenuation of light in the lower atmosphere, making sunsets less bright</i>. The light, rich in yellow to red colours, reflects from the bottom of surrounding clouds and makes them appear bright yellow, orange, pink or red. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Another interesting feature to note (slide 15) is that the sky at larger elevations of greater than a few degrees still appears blue - although not as bright as it is during the day. This happens because light from the setting Sun still reaches upper layers of troposphere and stratosphere where it is Rayleigh scattered by gas molecules towards the observer - scattered light received by the observer is rich in blue colour. Density of molecules in the upper atmosphere is not large and the overall the sky is not as bright as it is during the day.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><u>Refraction of Light in the Earth's atmosphere - Total Lunar Eclipse:</u></b></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">At sunset, sunrays pass close to the Earth's surface where the pressure and hence the gas density changes rapidly with altitude. Sharp density gradients cause light path to bend (see slide 17) and the Sun to appear higher in the sky than it really is. The change in elevation depends on atmospheric conditions but is of the order of 0.5 degrees. Light from the lower parts of the sun's disc is refracted by a greater amount and the apparent position of the bottom of the Sun is shifted more than the top of the Sun - giving the Sun a squeezed appearance (oblate disc shape). </span></p><p><b style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><i><u>Slide 17</u></i></b></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRr7p8YaNXWgmBYbDHaaXA1oOyLhHkDTYNhPeEgF_Yw9a47wOSpHAFFJytfhK8OIXFmhQWA-p82WmMyApl1MxoupN0OUbuHB4Caq5hNrTAP7XYUnxy6FTPNtaeh-GEgWwzV9KXU7pUhG4/s1280/refraction+1+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjRr7p8YaNXWgmBYbDHaaXA1oOyLhHkDTYNhPeEgF_Yw9a47wOSpHAFFJytfhK8OIXFmhQWA-p82WmMyApl1MxoupN0OUbuHB4Caq5hNrTAP7XYUnxy6FTPNtaeh-GEgWwzV9KXU7pUhG4/w640-h360/refraction+1+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u style="font-style: italic;"><b>Colour of the Moon at Total Lunar Eclipse:</b></u> An interesting consequence of refraction of light in the Earth's atmosphere is during a total lunar eclipse when the Moon is seen to acquire a reddish brown colour at the time of total occlusion. This happens when the Earth is directly in the path between the Sun and the Moon and casts a shadow big enough to totally block any sunlight from reaching the Moon. Normally this would imply that the Moon disappears from our view. However, rays from the Sun still pass through the Earth's atmosphere and refraction causes their paths to bend in such a way that Moon is illuminated by the refracted sunlight. Because the light has passed through a big length of Earth's atmosphere, Rayleigh scattering causes blue (shorter) wavelengths to preferentially scatter out of the sunrays leaving the transmitted light rich in longer red wavelengths. The intensity of such light that reaches the Moon and is then reflected back to the observers on Earth is rather weak and the Moon, at the time of total eclipse appears muddy red.</span><p></p><p><b style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><i><u>Slide 18</u></i></b></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgg6EKYiepFrS10qZ9pQ4s4mL_cfSmAqCgpSHjt04p3kl9lQXroBXwPh1zBH6pqsgnmsr44T06qpEsnNav2VSy1YYBMUymCicJsFg-eQu9x-VJpnV207hQemqevhuhRqgnhjXKndPCmC68/s1280/Lunar+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgg6EKYiepFrS10qZ9pQ4s4mL_cfSmAqCgpSHjt04p3kl9lQXroBXwPh1zBH6pqsgnmsr44T06qpEsnNav2VSy1YYBMUymCicJsFg-eQu9x-VJpnV207hQemqevhuhRqgnhjXKndPCmC68/w640-h360/Lunar+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span style="color: #2b00fe;"><b><u>Earth's Shadow, Sunset, Twilight Zones and Dusk:</u></b></span> <i> </i></span><p></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">It is not widely appreciated that even though the troposphere has about 80% of the atmosphere mass, the stratosphere and mesosphere (slide 4) hold appreciable amount of gas molecules. Besides the ozone layer at about 25 km altitude, there are aerosol particles which may stay in the stratosphere for long periods of time - such aerosols reach the stratosphere from volcanic eruptions, high flying aeroplanes etc. Dust from meteorites in the mesosphere and beyond consists of very fine nanometer sized particles that act as water condensation centres and form clouds. </span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">During the day, scattered light from the constituents of the stratosphere and mesosphere is indeed present but is masked completely by the much more intense scattered light by gas molecules in the troposphere. In the evening around sunset through twilight zones (our discussion is equally valid for sunrise) Earth's shadow blocks sun rays from illuminating the troposphere, but sunlight can still reach higher altitudes of the atmosphere (slides 19, 20 and 21).</span></p><p><b style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><i><u>Slide 19</u></i></b></p><p><b style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><i></i></b></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><i><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8EbE1NDcfnwgyJezU0lmypxO5-8ObZihZyYIZzoiw7i3d2XZQKoipiQeDkuwheque0QxwYfYrEWns28TFMrriBnI3vNLbR6U28WTx-w3YIrQz1HAtdjiAtflL7AThH9c7z1-URmr-1m0/s1280/Shadow+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg8EbE1NDcfnwgyJezU0lmypxO5-8ObZihZyYIZzoiw7i3d2XZQKoipiQeDkuwheque0QxwYfYrEWns28TFMrriBnI3vNLbR6U28WTx-w3YIrQz1HAtdjiAtflL7AThH9c7z1-URmr-1m0/w640-h360/Shadow+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></i></b></div><p><b style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><b><i><u>Slide 20</u></i></b></b></p><p><b style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><b><i></i></b></b></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><b><i><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPMv0cVUL5A5FbQXZhNdr1GIkfVBizvYbZielGN-Zyg1jhtUQkbRl1OZhWir1v2-RcRZO-SmXlbdOUht6vhJtqdLWPlce78GSWB2-0P5z7OpWbeb27fV64nJhBtXYz-A8lhZ2_k26JpoE/s1280/twilight+2+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgPMv0cVUL5A5FbQXZhNdr1GIkfVBizvYbZielGN-Zyg1jhtUQkbRl1OZhWir1v2-RcRZO-SmXlbdOUht6vhJtqdLWPlce78GSWB2-0P5z7OpWbeb27fV64nJhBtXYz-A8lhZ2_k26JpoE/w640-h360/twilight+2+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></i></b></b></div><p></p><p><b style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><b><b><i><u>Slide 21</u></i></b></b></b></p><p><b style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><i><b style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"></b></i></b></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><b style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><i><b style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgW-Ri7nWtNU4wid5E4ga2ZeCJ7ArGpR5jj1kylpgZ-x7uwkGHte-MluQoMwXZiGz2GQgnMETX30ZEd2W0wc5LwwLFFXAKuGCIP4YhskSyjXPMNIAWKQFgcQI0liGJErxFpp-kz-uuV3Ac/s1280/twilight+1+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgW-Ri7nWtNU4wid5E4ga2ZeCJ7ArGpR5jj1kylpgZ-x7uwkGHte-MluQoMwXZiGz2GQgnMETX30ZEd2W0wc5LwwLFFXAKuGCIP4YhskSyjXPMNIAWKQFgcQI0liGJErxFpp-kz-uuV3Ac/w640-h360/twilight+1+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></b></i></b></div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><br /><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;">For a description of the various form of twilights, see slides A5 and A6 in the appendix.</span></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;">Scattered light from the higher layers of the atmosphere may consist of both Rayleigh scattered light from gas molecules and also light reflected by clouds and small number of larger aerosol particles. Path lengths are particularly long and the twilights are strongly reddened. Twilight colours are particularly striking during the civil twilight period (soon after the Sun sinks below the horizon). Slide 22 shows some examples; <a href="https://earthsky.org/earth/twilight-2" target="_blank">Click here for more lovely images of twilights.</a></span></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"> </span></span></span><b style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><b><b><i><u>Slide 22</u></i></b></b></b></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-size: xx-large; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2zpw8yxiOwqNrI6zMvazKm78Rqv-G6LAelDPZczzb6B0t04JC_gNpt4IkYai3tPb2e9ZxkeHvc5oUBux-MMiDRV7PzLbhujX1fENDe6TD8xLrkhB5k9wN85LDhwF9wBNgwJRiovDJXQo/s1280/Twilights+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg2zpw8yxiOwqNrI6zMvazKm78Rqv-G6LAelDPZczzb6B0t04JC_gNpt4IkYai3tPb2e9ZxkeHvc5oUBux-MMiDRV7PzLbhujX1fENDe6TD8xLrkhB5k9wN85LDhwF9wBNgwJRiovDJXQo/w640-h360/Twilights+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div style="font-size: xx-large; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold;"><b style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><b><b><i><br /></i></b></b></b></div><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-weight: bold; text-decoration-line: underline;">Noctilucent (NLC) Clouds:</span><span> This article would not be complete without a discussion of <a href="https://skyandtelescope.org/observing/nights-of-noctilucent-clouds/" target="_blank">NLC clouds</a> - also known as <i><span style="color: #2b00fe;">night-shining clouds</span></i>. NLCs are located at altitudes of around 80 km in the upper layers of the mesosphere. They are too faint to be seen during the day. When the Sun is below about -</span></span></span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;">10⁰ and the lower layers of the atmosphere are dark in the Earth's shadow, light from NLCs present a wonderful enchanting display in the mid latitudes during the summer months. Polar regions never get dark enough for NLC to be visible. </span><span style="font-family: verdana;"> </span><span style="font-family: verdana;"> </span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span> </span></span></span><b><b><b><i><u>Slide 23</u></i></b></b></b></span></span></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-style: italic; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQk1PLf-uVFSsVdqsd_wRckSKgQU8_2croflgsDbIXOGw9u1dxTyEeaMyyrX2rIYjMtWEHIc4_vZZP8zoqlo4IyGKKtG_PEwGqWdtYeNFqHycOZtgzoFlLpyQT2pt-1DtrcCt4GIJvM0A/s1280/6nlc+jeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhQk1PLf-uVFSsVdqsd_wRckSKgQU8_2croflgsDbIXOGw9u1dxTyEeaMyyrX2rIYjMtWEHIc4_vZZP8zoqlo4IyGKKtG_PEwGqWdtYeNFqHycOZtgzoFlLpyQT2pt-1DtrcCt4GIJvM0A/w640-h360/6nlc+jeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhIPwdzVFnBv4rAXJHcuWsdE0EHvrbO4kiZvCYmkiXlvU7aD2chFu3QOPTI6dCzyYOQe9AB2GIPzx6ZiwCDhcjAePGfIiapJuaokVOnuR1V95AWf5d1S1Gt-_LLf1tN3QlRpNKz2yhEb80/s1280/nlcs+pp+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhIPwdzVFnBv4rAXJHcuWsdE0EHvrbO4kiZvCYmkiXlvU7aD2chFu3QOPTI6dCzyYOQe9AB2GIPzx6ZiwCDhcjAePGfIiapJuaokVOnuR1V95AWf5d1S1Gt-_LLf1tN3QlRpNKz2yhEb80/w640-h360/nlcs+pp+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div>NLCs are made of tiny ice crystals that are formed by water vapour freezing on extremely cold, < -100⁰C, meteoric smoke - the microparticles (nanometer sized) created when meteors burn up in the upper atmosphere. In 2007, <a href="https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2017/taking-aim-at-night-shining-clouds-10-years-10-science-highlights" target="_blank">NASA launched their AIMS satellite</a> to study noctilucent clouds and the complex science of the upper atmosphere - AIMS data has provided much information and understanding about NLCs. AIMS has observed that noctlucent clouds have been steadily increasing over the past decade - this is possibly related to the increase in water vapour (in summer months, relatively wet air circulating up from the lower atmosphere brings extra water vapour to the mesosphere) and decreasing upper atmosphere temperatures that are a side effect of the recent troposphere warming (climate change). NLCs are also being sighted at more southerly latitudes - as far south as London and Paris due to cooling of the mesosphere. <a href="https://www.facebook.com/groups/120898778545736/" target="_blank">See some remarkable pictures of NLCs on the facebook NLC group page.</a></span></div><div><br /></div><div><b><i><span style="color: #2b00fe;"><u>Postscript:</u> </span></i></b> </div><div><br /></div><div>1. For the sake of simplifying the account of interaction of light with matter, I have ignored the polarization of scattered light. Polarization of Rayleigh scattered light brings in many interesting observations but I have felt that such a discussion would obscure the attractiveness of the subject at the community outreach level. </div><div>2. The original blog has been divided into two parts - the second part deals with the colour of water and ice. Again, as we have seen in this part 1, things that happen in the environment are never simple with many processes contributing at the same time. It is, however, possible to peel off the extras and concentrate on the most important science - for the sky it is the scattering process. For the interaction of light with water, absorption of longer wavelengths by water molecules is the determining factor. Water (H2O) is special where its play an important part in determining its interaction with light photons and the physics is really exciting. This is the subject of Part 2. </div></span></span></div><div><span><i><u style="font-family: verdana; font-weight: bold;">Post Postscript: </u><b style="font-family: verdana;"> </b><span style="font-family: verdana;">Als</span><span style="font-family: verdana;">o of interest: </span></i></span></div><div><span><h1 class="ssrcss-15xko80-StyledHeading e1fj1fc10" id="main-heading" style="background-color: white; border: 0px; color: #141414; font-family: ReithSerif, Helvetica, Arial, freesans, sans-serif; font-stretch: inherit; font-variant-east-asian: inherit; font-variant-numeric: inherit; font-weight: 500; line-height: 1.09091; margin: 0px; outline-style: none; padding: 0px; vertical-align: baseline;" tabindex="-1"><span style="font-size: large;">Rare 'mother-of-pearl' cloud spotted in Scotland</span></h1></span></div><div><span><i><b style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"> </b><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: medium;">https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-64450253 </span><br /></i></span><p></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><u>APPENDIX</u></b></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u><b>Slide A1</b></u></span></p><p><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMqFuaV0IyH-cEsErpSe0IGA9qk-fg_hHf8fou3mrN6ba2SX2n8A_FlyWxL-Y-MCr3cd4R1ZOLXHtL8NbcKJGPj2vSLxdU2H9rlkhlNxItvenZwpiCCLiDCvJtcrky7aFzgLeKE3lMyF4/s1280/sunlight+jpeg.jpg" style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjMqFuaV0IyH-cEsErpSe0IGA9qk-fg_hHf8fou3mrN6ba2SX2n8A_FlyWxL-Y-MCr3cd4R1ZOLXHtL8NbcKJGPj2vSLxdU2H9rlkhlNxItvenZwpiCCLiDCvJtcrky7aFzgLeKE3lMyF4/w640-h360/sunlight+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u>Scattering of Light by Particles:</u> Light is an electromagnetic (EM) wave - a manifestation of oscillating electric and magnetic fields. All matter consists of atoms which have a cloud of negative electrons located around a massive (about 2000 times heavier than the total mass of the electrons) positively charged nucleus. The electric field of the incident light causes the electrons to oscillate - an oscillating dipole forms which itself radiates EM waves. Waves from the oscillating dipole combine with incident light to cause modification in the way the incident light propagates - its direction may be affected - this is the process of scattering. <i><span style="color: #2b00fe;">In a single scattering event, most of the light remains unaffected and only a very small portion suffers a change of direction.</span></i></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">The detailed theory is the Mie theory. In the limits of very small particle size, Mie theory may be simplified to give Rayleigh Approximation. Similarly, for large particles, Mie theory converges to the simpler Optical scattering. This is explained in slide A2.</span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><u>Slide A2</u> </b></span></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjH_dG_QAoNZTvll8NkeBkqS2ar96Ln1V-NT-hXkW0XsDs8-DB2GSiNNErqveOgOoIz0is_tOYJRqzYiZ5XaR0PqmZki0rUsKQUvMkGBPsBI-Oe8sb8DqLEoK_T8XANdaq7u1Wi_LTCWtk/s1280/scattering+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjH_dG_QAoNZTvll8NkeBkqS2ar96Ln1V-NT-hXkW0XsDs8-DB2GSiNNErqveOgOoIz0is_tOYJRqzYiZ5XaR0PqmZki0rUsKQUvMkGBPsBI-Oe8sb8DqLEoK_T8XANdaq7u1Wi_LTCWtk/w640-h360/scattering+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><b style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><u>Slide A3</u></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh8L9NkXrJzwnuktyy44Y0ee4GCt_QA600kY_KDkb12Ehl4mNufQV3Vq27M3kz2SgkoXjhFHdJKu4Ib7ZWODux5f46DaG_BVPJ3Ty8mSLhSinlYLVRTvqBoadQHb8DCFc9c6mlcK7YA3t8/s1280/Path+length+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh8L9NkXrJzwnuktyy44Y0ee4GCt_QA600kY_KDkb12Ehl4mNufQV3Vq27M3kz2SgkoXjhFHdJKu4Ib7ZWODux5f46DaG_BVPJ3Ty8mSLhSinlYLVRTvqBoadQHb8DCFc9c6mlcK7YA3t8/w640-h360/Path+length+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><b style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><u>Slide A4</u></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><b style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><u><br /></u></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiaA6TnZh7XDF3QDIurbwFalZTljXZ11FOtrCo7SKoYV3TuylpkFVX_EYZa7ifL3WGVawvDSCvVbD246kDL9LQck9UHSwQFmNvBPVfeciMdNw1R_ZsIaq8roA6PHCG9t7HZPG8yBVZEr7U/s1280/pathlengthjpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiaA6TnZh7XDF3QDIurbwFalZTljXZ11FOtrCo7SKoYV3TuylpkFVX_EYZa7ifL3WGVawvDSCvVbD246kDL9LQck9UHSwQFmNvBPVfeciMdNw1R_ZsIaq8roA6PHCG9t7HZPG8yBVZEr7U/w640-h360/pathlengthjpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div><br /></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_mass_(astronomy)" target="_blank">See also</a></span> </div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><b><u><span style="color: red; font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Transition from Day to Night:</span></u></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div></div><p></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Slide A5 shows the stages as the sun sets below the horizon.</span></p><p><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><u>Slide A5</u></b></span></p><p><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b></b></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhUuX6pGhtHMaNDhXlEbDGB-tSqLhyKOCbA0qj_MoIF_N15PGfjaH0d6MyN8f7uyjZ-9YdzzghBcOQoX7H4hPYF0EO-J_bhEm0cpSAjHi5Dswu0-OWqsj1blHphu0mfZ0N2mdrN5twmag4/s1280/dawn+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhUuX6pGhtHMaNDhXlEbDGB-tSqLhyKOCbA0qj_MoIF_N15PGfjaH0d6MyN8f7uyjZ-9YdzzghBcOQoX7H4hPYF0EO-J_bhEm0cpSAjHi5Dswu0-OWqsj1blHphu0mfZ0N2mdrN5twmag4/w640-h360/dawn+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></b></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;"><br /></div></div></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-weight: bold; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-weight: bold; text-align: left;"><b style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><u>Slide A6</u></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-weight: bold; text-align: left;"><b style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><u><br /></u></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-weight: bold; text-align: left;"><b style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi35vuVc79ygQuz6Nn3uYZ-z55pfueB2-meBlo4xk-tokNNnMD_lECPOZ5XUkIkGgYahF7R-8WXDtMTAlM-G4bUW0DTlHUYp4Ezd_ivAGmUc2gusIcIyWQ1VPMzrZ2y4AfWxL5yaWSC_2Y/s1280/twilights+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi35vuVc79ygQuz6Nn3uYZ-z55pfueB2-meBlo4xk-tokNNnMD_lECPOZ5XUkIkGgYahF7R-8WXDtMTAlM-G4bUW0DTlHUYp4Ezd_ivAGmUc2gusIcIyWQ1VPMzrZ2y4AfWxL5yaWSC_2Y/w640-h360/twilights+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><u><br /></u></b></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><u style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;">Copyright Issues:</u><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large; font-weight: bold;"> </span><i style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;">Most figures have been drawn by myself and may be used provided the blog address is acknowledged. There are 3 slides (slides 1, 12a and 16) where I have not been able to locate the copyright holder - if they contact me then I shall be delighted to add acknowledgement to their work.</i><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"> </span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-weight: bold; text-align: left;"><br /></div>Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-656274836058069289.post-3050119133936438362020-11-27T11:40:00.003+00:002020-12-02T16:49:37.808+00:00Artificial Light at Night is a Rapidly Growing Problem with Serious Health & Ecological Implications; Solutions are Relatively Simple: A Public Information Feature<p><span style="font-family: verdana;"><span style="font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-size: large;"> <i style="background-color: #f6f6f6;"><span style="color: red;"><a href="http://ektalks.blogspot.co.uk/2015/11/blogger-profile-ravi-singhal.html" style="color: #de7008;">Blog Contents and Who am I?</a></span></i></span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><i><span style="color: #2b00fe;">"Air, noise and water pollution have been high priority policy issues for decade, but light pollution remains scientifically, culturally and institutionally in the the dark" ...</span><a href="https://www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2019/09/light-pollution-destroying-environment/598561/" target="_blank">The Atlantic 2019</a></i></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span>Light and dark are concepts deeply embedded in our cultural and genetic heritage. For a lot of people, it is hard to comprehend that light can have negative consequences. The past 150 years have witnessed an explosion of artificial lighting </span>(man made illumination)<span> that has seriously disturbed the predictable natural rhythm of day and night. The evolution of l</span><span>iving organisms has been controlled by the natural cycle of light and dark. Since the introduction of electric light bulbs, anthropogenic light has disrupted this status quo with many adverse consequences, not only for humans but for animals and plants too.</span></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><span>The two main problems with artificial light are <i><span style="color: #2b00fe;">the excessive amount of light illumination and its colour spectrum</span></i>. </span>Urban centres are the regions where light pollution is the most serious. Urbanisation is a megatrend with a projected 70% of global population living in cities by 2050, and one expects that adverse effects of light pollution will continue to increase. </span></p><p style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><i>(Click on a slide to view it full page image) </i></span></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-Wl4yxh-oS_ANFASHevCrJ8pbbpXmXUWkUo4CsY1me_wd7KjWa3mOMdLhNcMV6gr-N5qYDWuLCLZwNiO38PITKPRMTtn-_FBC1gFZb8thJrTwTqs7WZHxr3UCN39HrvSjhSOUuSa8TN0/s1280/Europe+jpeg.jpg" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-Wl4yxh-oS_ANFASHevCrJ8pbbpXmXUWkUo4CsY1me_wd7KjWa3mOMdLhNcMV6gr-N5qYDWuLCLZwNiO38PITKPRMTtn-_FBC1gFZb8thJrTwTqs7WZHxr3UCN39HrvSjhSOUuSa8TN0/w640-h360/Europe+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></span></a></div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"><span style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">Bright lights from cities are clearly evident when viewed from space. Some of the city light is scattered back to the Earth by dust and gas molecules in the atmosphere, and gives the sky a diffuse brightness - what we call the <i><span style="color: #2b00fe;">skyglow</span></i>. Skyglow can make the city sky more than a hundred times brighter than the sky in rural areas far away from man-made lights. Skyglow is so prevalent that several billion people (80% in the USA and >60% in Europe) cannot see the Milky Way (<a href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/startswithabang/2016/06/14/the-milky-way-invisible-to-most-of-us-but-accessible-to-all/?sh=3a9262e12728" target="_blank">Click here for some good pictures</a>). Astronomers measure skyglow from levels 1 to 9 on the Bortle scale; <a href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0FXJUP6_O1w&feature=emb_logo" target="_blank">watch this 3 minute video to see how stars and the Milky Way are disappearing under the impact of artificial lights. </a></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"><span style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">It is also a serious threat to nocturnal wildlife. On a cloudy day (when there are more particles in the atmosphere), much more light is scattered back to the Earth and night skies over cities can be more than 20 times brighter than on a cloudless night (<a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5389131/pdf/srep08409.pdf" target="_blank">more details here</a>). </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"><span style="text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjywaRKdxOkuE8iQYeoyaBefOgJOOdReWWsTA92xchJknzrBTUp67WmFNh1LgRhT8fIoy7v5ltyIttOIZHEEY63aN_f_0vWvzoOC4WcKywTPRHKnASu2neu0OyGZuHYj1dIe_TaT2N-Hrc/s1280/skyglowjpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjywaRKdxOkuE8iQYeoyaBefOgJOOdReWWsTA92xchJknzrBTUp67WmFNh1LgRhT8fIoy7v5ltyIttOIZHEEY63aN_f_0vWvzoOC4WcKywTPRHKnASu2neu0OyGZuHYj1dIe_TaT2N-Hrc/w640-h360/skyglowjpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: left;"> </span></div></span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large; text-align: left;">Other forms of light pollution are known as <i style="color: #2b00fe;">clutter, trespass and glare. </i><span>The terms are self explanatory - t</span>here are many good articles on these topics and I refer you to <a href="HTTPS://WWW.NATURE.COM/ARTICLES/D41586-018-00568-7 " target="_blank">1</a>, <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_pollution" target="_blank">2</a>, <a href="http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss4/art13/" target="_blank">3 </a>and <a href="file:///C:/Users/Ravi/Downloads/Gaston%20Science%202018.pdf" target="_blank">4</a>.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large; text-align: left;"> </span></div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">In this publication, I shall look at the <u>science of light pollution</u> with particular emphasis on the effect of recently introduced light sources (compact fluorescent lights CFL, and light emitting diodes LED) on chrono-biology. The <a href="https://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss4/art13/" target="_blank">next slide</a> lists some of the impacts of light pollution: </span><p></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjONrVKgPv3xmauwh_FR5c3rZj4jB-hZI9KuJcBwMzZ17Dn02kculLvc538sJDV6wHdpjv3iUXXzt8OQfKnbjQYMg7wGz4inDEZfCK3OBz0sBPGBFZzybto89-kGnqD7FuBflxPyXQhFVI/s1280/impacts+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjONrVKgPv3xmauwh_FR5c3rZj4jB-hZI9KuJcBwMzZ17Dn02kculLvc538sJDV6wHdpjv3iUXXzt8OQfKnbjQYMg7wGz4inDEZfCK3OBz0sBPGBFZzybto89-kGnqD7FuBflxPyXQhFVI/w640-h360/impacts+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></span></a></div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: verdana;"><b style="color: red;"><u>Light Pollution and Human Health</u>:</b> For millions of years, human physiology has been governed by our internal biological clock or circadian rhythm (CR). <i>CR follows a rough 24-hour cycle - it not only controls your sleep/wake pattern but many body functions rise and fall at set times of the day based on your </i><a href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/2017/press-release/" style="font-style: italic;" target="_blank">circadian rhythm</a>, <a href="see also" target="_blank">see also</a>. For the importance of sleep, I refer you to <a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2019/05/sleep-part-2-why-do-we-need-to-sleep.html" target="_blank">1</a> and <a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2019/01/sleep-part-1-why-do-we-need-to-sleep.html" target="_blank">2</a>.</span></span><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8VcVyiIkkWsWY-8Es3KeEFXitMvqeKLQu8ZcJUf53ba1oxai8GEjIcbwViJ7qvPMCqHc-QXXmPO-y5I8mlsNsgq6ObwCVH_XZacmk_MhRDcX36pERP6G8zUf5h8_LW7sw7taDSr74cZg/s1280/CR1+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8VcVyiIkkWsWY-8Es3KeEFXitMvqeKLQu8ZcJUf53ba1oxai8GEjIcbwViJ7qvPMCqHc-QXXmPO-y5I8mlsNsgq6ObwCVH_XZacmk_MhRDcX36pERP6G8zUf5h8_LW7sw7taDSr74cZg/w640-h360/CR1+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvDRKUJDNrduv7BjRLuvqyyPKyBsDrdcnh8C4vDjLUXGc7JLwxou-B_wd8vwCE6HUzSuCn1llw8tHik04LOqFgg61miQYeyeR3TAxvT9T8ufZchq_Wq_-Tz4gFM21PIoadRKV1Qjif5x4/s1280/CR2+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhvDRKUJDNrduv7BjRLuvqyyPKyBsDrdcnh8C4vDjLUXGc7JLwxou-B_wd8vwCE6HUzSuCn1llw8tHik04LOqFgg61miQYeyeR3TAxvT9T8ufZchq_Wq_-Tz4gFM21PIoadRKV1Qjif5x4/w640-h360/CR2+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><span><div><span><br /></span></div><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_effects_on_circadian_rhythm" target="_blank">Circadian Rhythm and your sleep/wake pattern may be affected by the amount of ambient light</a> (jet lag is a good example where the time shift after a long plane journey may expose you to a diffrent day/night cycle) and by its spectral properties (intensity distribution with wavelength or colour). Night shift workers are particularly vulnerable and suffer many serious health problems directly attributable to the unnatural ways that they are exposed to artificial light. New artificial light bulbs introduced over the past 50 years are economical to run but have a spectral signature that is relatively rich in short wavelengths (blue light). E</span><span><span>xposure at night to b</span><span>lue light of wavelength around 480 nm has been shown to be particularly detrimental to maintaining a natural circardian rhythm. </span></span></div><div><span> </span></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqP0vXu-BQwLLux9NCsgActC-7i20X9k95Yga5oeFPTCsShJsW7jqPYEE9UZSjklwQxwkPSA_W6WKNp98SAZXT2-n9bH4gHZYlNy-ZLNWOKDIcEKlY4c3PFCcAcJvLaKa9X3-nVsuM2x8/s1280/CR1+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiqP0vXu-BQwLLux9NCsgActC-7i20X9k95Yga5oeFPTCsShJsW7jqPYEE9UZSjklwQxwkPSA_W6WKNp98SAZXT2-n9bH4gHZYlNy-ZLNWOKDIcEKlY4c3PFCcAcJvLaKa9X3-nVsuM2x8/w640-h360/CR1+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div><br /></div><div><span><u style="color: red; font-weight: bold;">Understanding Artificial Light (AL) :</u> Artificial light (man made light) has made dark periods of evenings and nights accessible for human activities that, otherwise, would have been impossible. Some aspects of artificial lighting are at odds with our evolutionary biology, and there is growing unease about the way we use/abuse AL. Our circadian rhythm evolved with natural light and requires exposure to bright light in the mornings and longer wavelengths of light (yellow-red) during evenings (see slide). </span></div><div><span><span> </span><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiulzzdugqbwnrwCNCbAqptqdyLQPB8EQgVTrLHpk1JIwvqMH3B0BoX4R4Dvd2jabk1DjNU4iFnLB55PL7m75HIKfNlcJVvzS5JXtoERLojKcpC7xlzMRmManNrUNrcqeV4RniKm-gpKAs/s1280/sunlightjpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiulzzdugqbwnrwCNCbAqptqdyLQPB8EQgVTrLHpk1JIwvqMH3B0BoX4R4Dvd2jabk1DjNU4iFnLB55PL7m75HIKfNlcJVvzS5JXtoERLojKcpC7xlzMRmManNrUNrcqeV4RniKm-gpKAs/w640-h360/sunlightjpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><span>The old style incandescent light bulbs (ILB) emit light by heating a tungsten filament to high temperatures around 3000C. The light spectrum, as it happened, closely matches the spectrum of sunlight at dusk. While overillumination (use of excessive unneeded light outdoors) was a problem, artificial light from ILBs did not cause serious disruption of circadian rhythm. </span></span></div><div><span> </span></div><div><span><span>Around 1950, significant changes happened in the way artificial light is generated. ILBs were inefficient (~10%) with 90% of the electrical energy wasted as heat. Far more efficient (~ 50%) <i>compact fluorecscent light</i> (CFL) arrived first, with super efficient (~85-90%) <i>light emitting diodes</i> (LED) have now completely replaced ILBs. Unfortunately, increased efficiency made light inexpensive and <a href="https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fenrg.2018.00026/full" target="_blank">Jevons paradox</a> kicked in. AL is</span><span> now used excessively and needlessly with overillumination becoming a serious problem causing <i>skyglow, clutter, glare</i> and <i>tresspass</i>. <span style="color: #2b00fe;"><i>Human societies now live in contradiction with their biological heritage - they are indoors during the day with less exposure to bright lights, and then they switch on bright lights of the wrong spectral makeup during the evenings and night - exactly opposite to how we evolved.</i></span> </span></span></div><div><span>The hue of a light source is rated according to its CCT value. This is explained in the next slide:</span></div><div><span><br /></span></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiwME8I1BfY8gYOGn7q6qnB3EgUMyRUidrDzJi-wzJxxCa3QhjW85uZzw2120RTpRew8rI0A8JZOhsbj3uVfavOvx0UHkTH2NoJazC8OLCPePQ4SqXqB7HyW_8lTttdBcdxFliubFNnKhg/s1280/cct+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiwME8I1BfY8gYOGn7q6qnB3EgUMyRUidrDzJi-wzJxxCa3QhjW85uZzw2120RTpRew8rI0A8JZOhsbj3uVfavOvx0UHkTH2NoJazC8OLCPePQ4SqXqB7HyW_8lTttdBcdxFliubFNnKhg/w640-h360/cct+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></span></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span><br /></span></div></div><div><span>The spectral profiles of LED and CFL bulbs are shown in the next two slides:</span></div><div><span><br /></span></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtIszpw2TDebK7J4dpiRNm55IVyzqBsUPiqM0iEwHiS844VsbU4TUdFyZEWePS3OIaogpudNoDiveK2R78WPe0jWYI8XauUavB4qNU492YMw-z_vDjeC0WBeh9VzpWtcOqZ9BQ5MlQmP8/s1280/led+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjtIszpw2TDebK7J4dpiRNm55IVyzqBsUPiqM0iEwHiS844VsbU4TUdFyZEWePS3OIaogpudNoDiveK2R78WPe0jWYI8XauUavB4qNU492YMw-z_vDjeC0WBeh9VzpWtcOqZ9BQ5MlQmP8/w640-h360/led+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></span></a></div><span><br /></span><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrbGGAbhOLCIqp0EYplhAmgQBe-O9uCrpq69TFdaMdHCBet2GI0p-tq-tujZcxwV_AGow11LTiPKga7NKZE3siHdceIvC5vqbd-AZOU_z6QeJl4zBKMTn_cbhcvxFNFqO76CJikXmqrpc/s1280/cfl+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjrbGGAbhOLCIqp0EYplhAmgQBe-O9uCrpq69TFdaMdHCBet2GI0p-tq-tujZcxwV_AGow11LTiPKga7NKZE3siHdceIvC5vqbd-AZOU_z6QeJl4zBKMTn_cbhcvxFNFqO76CJikXmqrpc/w640-h360/cfl+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></span></a></div><div><span><br /></span></div><div><span>In the past, sodium discharge lamps were used for outdoor light illumination. Sodium lamps are being replaced by the much more efficient LEDs. While the CCT of sodium lamps is around 2200K and they appear yellow, LEDs tend to have a much higher CCT value and there is a lot more blue tinge in their light.</span></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg7BqTU8CBllUa_UxOq9c91xJwpBtJjqkWT2yfMH69xwGBEx183WC1vsNECeU8fwzwiOXjNqIRD6heEX27hT1MSjeZUDC4IUboAWMd-qoSjcA3vNCvGvNEFIXWG0VljitvSk9oPNQeF2rc/s1280/sodumjpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg7BqTU8CBllUa_UxOq9c91xJwpBtJjqkWT2yfMH69xwGBEx183WC1vsNECeU8fwzwiOXjNqIRD6heEX27hT1MSjeZUDC4IUboAWMd-qoSjcA3vNCvGvNEFIXWG0VljitvSk9oPNQeF2rc/w640-h360/sodumjpeg.jpg" width="640" /></span></a></div><span><br /></span></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: left;">The following slide shows the remarkable difference in the Milan city lights after HPS lamps were replaced by LED lights (as seen from space):</span></div></div><div><span><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh11sEJ5NaM_OnK7aUBu3l3CDaCrvQnpQT9btJx3retv-B1-0tP3QnogdDR-TWFq5oA_ICfUJAZrcvCy7COPFcaJD0zsqQCG69abEGvHh5woWKu55mtfY_EZ4bT3qSJQs2sjblv_t-KBpE/s1280/milan+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh11sEJ5NaM_OnK7aUBu3l3CDaCrvQnpQT9btJx3retv-B1-0tP3QnogdDR-TWFq5oA_ICfUJAZrcvCy7COPFcaJD0zsqQCG69abEGvHh5woWKu55mtfY_EZ4bT3qSJQs2sjblv_t-KBpE/w640-h360/milan+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /></span></div></span></div><span><span>Milan is typical of most big cities. The slide demonstrates that much of the outdoor lights that are meant to illuminate the roads and infrastructure is sent upwards and therefore wasted. This is a good example of unplanned, careless and wasteful use of energy that not only adds to costs but also sends large amounts of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere contributing to global warming. </span></span></div><div><span><span><a href="http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss4/art13/" target="_blank">Artificial light consumes 19% of global electricity production and emits 1.9 gigatonnes of CO2. The worldwide use of artifical light is increasing by about 6% per year.</a></span></span></div><div><span><u style="color: red; font-weight: bold;"><br /></u></span></div><div><span><u style="color: red; font-weight: bold;">Production of Many Hormones is Affected by Light:</u> <a href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5372003/pdf/biology-06-00010.pdf" target="_blank">Several hormones show daily oscillations (circadian rhythm)</a>. Melatonin (controls sleep), cortisol (activity and stress), gonadal hormones progesterone & testosterone (sex), thyroid and growth hormones are known to have circadian rhythm. Nutrient sensitive hormones like insulin, leptin, ghrelin also oscillate on a circadian basis, and their release is at least partly regulated by light-dark cycles.</span></div><div><span><br /></span></div><div><span>In order to emphasize the importance of maintaining a good circadian rhythm by the provision of proper light-dark cycle and correct spectral quality, I shall look at the particular case of melatonin production. Melatonin is called '<i>the sleep hormone</i>'; its production increases as dark hours set in. Blue light has been shown to suppress melatotin synthesis:</span></div><div><span><br /></span></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXFk7oT_x4J7FEvc0d-S5TloiJhv3r_-G2ulDvsOncgXJnvELkEunyO8C0hUbMR41bWvhIvj7qXYSyiI-Qn5hapTNKcXTmpahrSJGb6Quxa8m9Z0SPa4iZFyZoTQ6dMBnWDuz_bFrssV8/s1280/melatoninjpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhXFk7oT_x4J7FEvc0d-S5TloiJhv3r_-G2ulDvsOncgXJnvELkEunyO8C0hUbMR41bWvhIvj7qXYSyiI-Qn5hapTNKcXTmpahrSJGb6Quxa8m9Z0SPa4iZFyZoTQ6dMBnWDuz_bFrssV8/w640-h360/melatoninjpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhT8gJ12iJjz53rJ2d-4U1qR4w39Gq5_fkn45WT5-1LHG3uuAFJplgxPK1nHbF2i6d7XtBGg2icLIqzqAoTkb0hYGuBffbF0-h4DBTkbYvmm60l8fEVpoLuajWcnMBupTFBYr1gKNnaQBY/s1280/goggles.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhT8gJ12iJjz53rJ2d-4U1qR4w39Gq5_fkn45WT5-1LHG3uuAFJplgxPK1nHbF2i6d7XtBGg2icLIqzqAoTkb0hYGuBffbF0-h4DBTkbYvmm60l8fEVpoLuajWcnMBupTFBYr1gKNnaQBY/w640-h360/goggles.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><span><div><span><br /></span></div><div><span>Melatonin synthesis in the pineal gland requires availability of serotonin that in turn is made from the essential amino acid tryptophan. Tryptophan is present in high protein foods like egg white, cod, cheese, sunflower seeds etc. and efficient synthesis of serotonin happens in the presence of bright lights. In fact, there is good evidence that <a href="https://www.thelancet.com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(02)11737-5/fulltext?cc=y%3D" target="_blank">mood seasonality - seasonal affective disorder (SAD) - is due to low availability of serotonin</a>. Being in bright sunlight during the day for an hour helps serotonin production which in turn helps in melatonin synthesis. <i>It seems that for ensuring good sleep, it is also important to spend some wake time in bright sunlight. </i></span></div><div><span><br /></span></div><span>The above discussion establishes that for efficient melatonin production </span></span><span><span>blue light exposure must be minimised after evening sets in. This should ensure p</span><span>rope</span><span>r sleep (lasting 7 to 8 hours) that is essential for maintaining circadian rhythm. Why sleep is important and how our health is affected by poor quality and/or insufficient sleep has been comprehensively covered by my publications (</span><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2019/05/sleep-part-2-why-do-we-need-to-sleep.html" target="_blank">1</a><span>,</span><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2019/01/sleep-part-1-why-do-we-need-to-sleep.html" target="_blank"> 2</a><span>) and I refer you to them for details. </span></span></div><div><span><br /></span></div><div><span><span><u style="color: #2b00fe; font-weight: bold;">Impact of Light Pollution on Animals and Plants:</u> Animals and plants belong to the Earth's ecosystem as much as humans do - we all have evolved together over millions of years under the daily rthythm of light and dark. Compared with other environ</span><span>mental features like temperature, atmospheric constituents, climate etc.,</span><span> light and dark cycles have been extremely stable, and biological systems are unlikely to have developed the ability to easily/rapidly adopt to sudden changes in the level of light at night. </span></span></div><div><span><span>Artificial light at night (ALAN) has possibly disrupted the rhythm of life far more for animals and plants than it has affected humans. ALAN pervades large geographic areas - for example, the sky glow from cities may be visible from hundreds of kilometres away. With the exception of more general loss of view of the Milky Way and stars, ALAN </span><span>only affetcs humans living in cities. Humans </span><span> can also control their exposure to ALAN, but nocturnal animals have no such options available. Nocturnal animals have used light from the Moon and stars (brightness ~0.1 lux) for activities like migration, searching for food, habitats and mates. Excessive brightness of ALAN can seriously <a href="https://theconversation.com/dim-the-lights-to-restore-natures-body-clock-25923" target="_blank">disrupt animal physiology, biological timings, behaviour and welfare </a>- it has the potential to disrupt entire ecosystems. Many animals (<a href="https://theconversation.com/turn-off-the-porch-light-6-easy-ways-to-stop-light-pollution-from-harming-our-wildlife-132595" target="_blank">fish, insects, turtles</a>) have high sensitivity to blue light; the recent widespread use of LED lighting, that has a high content of short wavelength blue colour, have further accentuated the adverse effects of ALAN. </span></span></div><div><span>Over the past 25 years, scientists have started studying how ALAN affects animals (both terrestrial & aquatic) and plants, but much work remains to be done to properly understand the ecosystem damage due to artificial light. Cities are expected to grow rapidly, exacerbating associated light pollution at night; the situation requires urgent attention. </span></div><div><span><br /></span></div><div><span><span style="color: red;"><b><u>What can be done to control Pollution by Artificial Light at Night (ALAN)?</u></b></span></span></div><div><span><span>Unlike other pollutants, ALAN is easily controllable - on a basic level, just switch off the lights and the effects of light pollution could be eliminated on a swift time scale. However, life does not work that way - for generations, ALAN has delivered many benefits like extended work and recreational hours, and night activity is part of our lifestyle and culture - it is not possible to go back to preindustrial life. But, t</span><span>here are many ways that we can reduce the harmful effects of ALAN on humans and rest of the ecosystem. <i><span style="color: #2b00fe;">A mixture of good planning, design, education and common sense is required</span></i>. </span><span> </span><span> </span></span></div><div><span><span>It is important to realise that, until now, v</span><span>ery little planning has gone into how we use outdoor lighting - 30 to 60% of energy consumed in lighting is unneeded. This represents lost resources and also contributes to climate change. <a href="https://www.darksky.org/" target="_blank">Many organisations</a> throughout the world are actively promoting awareness about light pollution at night and working towards reducing the negative biological effects of ALAN - controlling ALAN saves money and it is good for health and the environment too - it is a win-win situation for everybody. On an individual level, one needs to act to maintain a healthy circadian rhythm for your own health, and also consider ways to minimise the polluting effects of outdoor spaces. </span></span></div><div><span><br /></span></div><div><span style="color: #2b00fe;"><i>In order to reduce the polluting effects of artificial light at night, </i></span></div><div><span>we can take some simple common sense steps to start with:</span></div><div><span><br /></span></div><div><span style="color: #2b00fe;"><b><u>Outdoor Lighting:</u></b></span></div><div><span style="color: #2b00fe;"><b><u><br /></u></b></span></div><div><span>1. <u>Turn off unneccesary lights:</u> Most outdoor lights are switched on at dusk and stay on during the whole night. We do not really need street lights after about 1 am when both the road and pedestrian traffic is extremely low. Most outdoor lights can be switched off for part of the night with significant cost savings as an additional benefit. </span></div><div><span>Various studies have cast doubt on the security and crime reduction aspects of outdoor lighting. Motion sensitive lights with surveillance cameras situated at appropriate places would be far more effective measures. </span></div><div><span>2. <u>Down-shield exterieor lights:</u> Probably one of the most important measure one can take to reduce skyglow, glare and trespass. Most outdoor light fixtures in use emit light in all directions - there is no need to shine light upwards or even horizontally. Properly shielded lights with reflectors can illuminate the desired area only and minimize light pollution by using much less energy and save costs.</span></div><div><span>3. <u>Use high-efficiency warm white lights:</u> LED lights are super efficient and convert ~90% of electricity into light. They are also controllable in the direction and intensity of emitted light. LEDs do emit more blue light than the alternative high pressure sodium lamps. By choosing a warm white temperature LED rated at < 2700K, one can increase the proportion of yellow and red wavelengths and reduce the impact of the light on humans and wild life.</span></div><div><span>4. <u>Use timers and motion-sensitive lights:</u> Motion sensitive lights only come on when needed - installing them can reduce significant amount of light pollution and provide big cost savings without compromising safety and comfort.</span></div><div><span>5. <u>Optimise Light Intensity:</u> Light used should be at the lowest intensity required. Again, timers can reduce the intensity of light during periods of low use (after midnight for example). At present, lights that are too intense are used causing unwanted skyglow and glare.</span></div><div><span><br /></span></div><div><span><u style="color: #2b00fe; font-weight: bold;">Indoor Lighting:</u> Indoor lighting is most relevant for human health and with the introduction of economic-to-run LEDs, wasteful use of light has significantly increased. Measures for reducing the impact of outdoor lighting are also applicable for indoor lighting - switching off lights in unoccupied areas, use of dimmers to reduce excessive intensity etc. - smart technology can be very effective. </span></div><div><span>Most importantly one must avoid exposure to short wavelength blue light - <i>for LED lights, the use of blue light blocking goggles at least two hours before bedtime is highly recommended as this ensures sufficient melatonin production for good quality sleep.</i></span></div><div><span><br /></span></div><div><span>At night time, it is important to <i>close the curtains</i>, <i>switch off porch & garden lights</i> to ensure that glare and skyglow are not increased. </span></div><div><span><br /></span></div><div><span><u style="color: #2b00fe; font-weight: bold;">Community Awareness:</u> The damaging effects of light pollution are not widely appreciated. It is important to educate ourselves about these and help our neighbours and wider community to understand the issues involved. In most areas, local authorities are responsible for the planning and installation of outdoor lighting. Most measures to reduce light pollution save money, and it should not be too difficult to convince civic authorities of the merits of good design that provide optimum illumination levels at times of the night when it is required. </span></div><div><span><br /></span></div><div><span>Thanks for reading. Please pass the link to this blog to friends, family and neighbours. </span></div></div></span></div>Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-656274836058069289.post-91140901313414998992020-10-24T10:36:00.246+01:002022-03-11T09:38:43.106+00:00Colour of Objects: Visible Light Spectrum; Primary Colours; Optical Illusions; How Do Colours Work?<p> <i style="background-color: #f6f6f6; font-family: arial, helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: x-large;"><span style="color: red;"><a href="http://ektalks.blogspot.co.uk/2015/11/blogger-profile-ravi-singhal.html" style="color: #de7008;">Blog Contents and Who am I?</a></span></i></p><p><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 18pt;">Colours
provide extraordinary detail and richness in the way we experience our
surroundings. Except for vision, our other senses only allow us access to
the local environment. Our ability to see objects with better than
millimetre resolution and their colours has played a fundamental role in
activities like foraging, finding mates, keeping healthy etc. and has guided
our evolutionary development so much so that ~40% of our brain is devoted to
vision related activity. </span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 18pt;">The colour of objects is mainly
determined by two factors; </span><i><span face=""Arial",sans-serif" style="color: #2b00fe; font-size: 18pt;">the light that illuminates them
and the nature of pigments present in the object</span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 18pt;">. We
look at these in detail in the following: </span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p>
</p><p><b><u><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 18pt;">Visible Light:</span></u></b><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 18pt;"> (For
more details <a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2020/07/light.html" target="_blank">see</a>)
Most of the energy from the Sun that reaches Earth is in the visible part of
the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum - the visible spectrum extends from 400 to
700 nm (1 nanometre or nm is a billionth of a metre). The human visual system
has evolved to efficiently perceive the range of wavelength present in the
visible spectrum. Small amount of radiation in the ultraviolet (UV, 300
to 400 nm) and infrared (IR, >700 nm) also reaches the Earth's surface; some
animals can indeed perceive UV and IR radiation. </span><span style="font-size: 13.5pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibDNJwShkODiLz4zEc5cdngnhNJ6HqGcRqNrtFuqRvf0LCqELOeiSFu7HsmxCM906nx2eNPAR_zPO7iUlVdZ58e3NE09eCUOJCsKHmnpfEVndhyH1zuv154fO46Hms03REwWclXcX95fM/s1280/sunlightjpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEibDNJwShkODiLz4zEc5cdngnhNJ6HqGcRqNrtFuqRvf0LCqELOeiSFu7HsmxCM906nx2eNPAR_zPO7iUlVdZ58e3NE09eCUOJCsKHmnpfEVndhyH1zuv154fO46Hms03REwWclXcX95fM/w640-h360/sunlightjpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><p><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b style="font-weight: bold; text-decoration-line: underline;"></b></span></p><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiQZnD4v7KpIQy__mCyZI3JnFfSE8tIAR6aGeH4J8uaAk1o52x0arWGTKSzDfv9Ec4n4kjViq1hy7O3pDU8A_4jiGkWPhEji3zBDNXfG2aB6-WWj2dmwL1r3B5wHO3BOu2NKbcfP_WMpkRnv9DnC1gaMCExrb0NIz3MrocMcxt55qCZfMi1FXgBo5pg=s1280" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/a/AVvXsEiQZnD4v7KpIQy__mCyZI3JnFfSE8tIAR6aGeH4J8uaAk1o52x0arWGTKSzDfv9Ec4n4kjViq1hy7O3pDU8A_4jiGkWPhEji3zBDNXfG2aB6-WWj2dmwL1r3B5wHO3BOu2NKbcfP_WMpkRnv9DnC1gaMCExrb0NIz3MrocMcxt55qCZfMi1FXgBo5pg=w640-h360" width="640" /></a><br /><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><b><u><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">Human Perception of Colours:</span></u></b><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;"> Our vision has evolved to distinguish various wavelengths
of light as colours - humans can perceive ten million colours. Our eyes
are most sensitive to light in the 500 to 600 nm range - perceived as green to
yellow/orange colours - <i>these are also the most abundant colours in the
environment</i>. Humans are <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color" target="_blank">trichromatic</a> -
the retina contains three types of colour receptor cells (called cones); <a href="https://www.cis.rit.edu/people/faculty/montag/vandplite/pages/chap_9/ch9p1.html" target="_blank">see
also</a>. Colours are characterized by three properties - hue (H), saturation (S) and brightness (also called lightness L). Links here (<a href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/vision/colchar.html#c1" target="_blank">1</a>, <a href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/vision/colchar.html#c3">2</a>, <a href="http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/vision/colchar.html#c2" target="_blank">3</a>) and slides in the appendix at the end of this blog provide more details.</span></div><p></p><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4Y9SmK87frdhD1q6EAEkqS6BOEv2QlUsiBbGwSPpIMziqnfVX3T5ui2jWGAcWF1JOYRTDKYYW2QlEthb9eS8ogfuk2yaDnso1ZFwmyyay5ABOV36NPPPTxj21f_X9RBjNWJ_FNuNqsR8/s1280/rodandconesjpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4Y9SmK87frdhD1q6EAEkqS6BOEv2QlUsiBbGwSPpIMziqnfVX3T5ui2jWGAcWF1JOYRTDKYYW2QlEthb9eS8ogfuk2yaDnso1ZFwmyyay5ABOV36NPPPTxj21f_X9RBjNWJ_FNuNqsR8/w640-h360/rodandconesjpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><p></p><p style="font-family: arial;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgs4vWgzRLMNcz6L7dS5xAeRq4fk49HWA6eVxLU72MD_baTWuc19ylpPfIuBwlK80lY3HFMNVJCy2byXDO-fOgLHk3Km3Y8k8-rwN_W0RoK51wPLpehYWPRmR-C6PrFufariK8zTNuIOP8/s1280/eye+responsejpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgs4vWgzRLMNcz6L7dS5xAeRq4fk49HWA6eVxLU72MD_baTWuc19ylpPfIuBwlK80lY3HFMNVJCy2byXDO-fOgLHk3Km3Y8k8-rwN_W0RoK51wPLpehYWPRmR-C6PrFufariK8zTNuIOP8/w640-h360/eye+responsejpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><p></p><p></p><p><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt;">Why
we associate light of certain wavelength to a particular colour is not properly
understood. After all, light is simply a manifestation of varying
electric and magnetic fields - its wavelength tells us how many cycles of such
oscillations are happening per second (frequency = speed of light
/wavelength). The brain receives electrochemical signals that are coded for the amount of light and the range of wavelengths that are
incident on the retina. Why and how the brain translated these signals into
particular colours is a mystery that is buried deeply into our evolutionary
past. </span><span style="font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; text-align: left;">Also interesting is the way that
the brain, after receiving the signals from the cones, decides on the colour of
light that the cones had received. For example, a wavelength in the
region of 590 nm is interpreted as yellow, but so is a combination of two
wavelengths of 523 nm (green) and 640 nm (red). </span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjJm8Mdeh1OpV0p-CQko0NTbdmJGWxVmMNYRnIYfNhY4F1JExy9y-80WEWbMPuk5gKcJcCgKSz2F5Cg3piaj1-VHp_wE2AQrKYN-785NB0JEA-Yof7jfE4p49LBHjbvlNTf-tVlI1a9fXM/s1280/eyebrainjpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjJm8Mdeh1OpV0p-CQko0NTbdmJGWxVmMNYRnIYfNhY4F1JExy9y-80WEWbMPuk5gKcJcCgKSz2F5Cg3piaj1-VHp_wE2AQrKYN-785NB0JEA-Yof7jfE4p49LBHjbvlNTf-tVlI1a9fXM/w640-h360/eyebrainjpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><p class="MsoNormal"><b><u><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">Primary Colours:</span></u></b><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;"> We have
learnt that white light is a mixture of wavelengths from 400 nm to 700
nm. In fact, it is possible to generate white light by mixing light of
three well-separated wavelengths, called the primary colours. </span><i><span face=""Arial",sans-serif" style="color: #2b00fe; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">The most widely
used primary colours are red, green and blue - the RGB system</span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">. These are </span><i><span face=""Arial",sans-serif" style="color: #2b00fe; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">additive primary
colours</span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;"> as the addition of these in equal proportion gives white light.
Adding RGB colours in different proportions generates other colours - an
infinite variety of them.</span><span style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEig2S4Kqk8kCNmIG-yYp8smcyEbb_j2G9Lfx5V8XkAKh6OgF0o9NJ532hvs7I_TXr5jkztpZD1NQMM1_GAahHyFqSyHAb7j2r3WsbC_GqQHT8zpdC63ygQ1zo1LDVNn9yB9Dg96degNsQs/s1280/coloursjpej.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEig2S4Kqk8kCNmIG-yYp8smcyEbb_j2G9Lfx5V8XkAKh6OgF0o9NJ532hvs7I_TXr5jkztpZD1NQMM1_GAahHyFqSyHAb7j2r3WsbC_GqQHT8zpdC63ygQ1zo1LDVNn9yB9Dg96degNsQs/w640-h360/coloursjpej.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt;">Additive primary
colours are generally associated with sources of light - lamps, bulbs, flames
etc. For example, you can mix light from two or more lamps to produce a
different colour.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt;">In real life, objects
have characteristic colours when viewed in white light (e.g. during the day) -
leaves are green, ripe apple is red etc. Objects do not produce their own
light but absorb, reflect and/or transmit light incident on them. Any
light absorbed by the pigment in the object will subtract corresponding
wavelengths from the white light - the resulting light will no longer be pure
white. The colour of the object is inferred by the eye-brain system
when the reflected or transmitted light falls on the retina of the eye.
This discussion also leads us to describe </span><i><span face=""Arial",sans-serif" style="color: #2b00fe; font-size: 16pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">the subtractive
primary colours</span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt;"> or </span><i><span face=""Arial",sans-serif" style="color: #2b00fe; font-size: 16pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">complementary colours</span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt;"> - these are shown on the slide
above, but we now look at some examples to understand this complex subject.</span><span style="font-family: "Times New Roman", serif; font-size: 16pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p></div><div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijtj9LMNfRyai_n7jJkZc_CteM8s5_Aj8lIG-D0pqGEDThDReHdWvXWFCHBXZZeXROdHR6ngsqUa_g5kjNMZNGX2NnsqLLSBgokO-L-nU0ALcMNjJpU4hW2uFtWeGyvnc8gEzjec1FVM8/s1280/colours3jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEijtj9LMNfRyai_n7jJkZc_CteM8s5_Aj8lIG-D0pqGEDThDReHdWvXWFCHBXZZeXROdHR6ngsqUa_g5kjNMZNGX2NnsqLLSBgokO-L-nU0ALcMNjJpU4hW2uFtWeGyvnc8gEzjec1FVM8/w640-h360/colours3jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhX2ZV0NtaMxH6qP9iRvGs0gGdMVgCiLON0hCpQZ16_H8JJqizlbldj2ELiGH9SDkwIs16PLrHxRrhYDxhEa9CCO8CvwhK0U3Vx9E55UgxSF14agnhmpZ25uSoGKLMHwMBzdMew-nvLxUo/s1280/ex+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhX2ZV0NtaMxH6qP9iRvGs0gGdMVgCiLON0hCpQZ16_H8JJqizlbldj2ELiGH9SDkwIs16PLrHxRrhYDxhEa9CCO8CvwhK0U3Vx9E55UgxSF14agnhmpZ25uSoGKLMHwMBzdMew-nvLxUo/w640-h360/ex+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><br /><div><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">We have established that <span style="color: #2b00fe;">t</span></span><i><span face=""Arial",sans-serif" style="color: #2b00fe; font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%; mso-ansi-language: EN-GB; mso-bidi-language: AR-SA; mso-fareast-font-family: Calibri; mso-fareast-language: EN-US; mso-fareast-theme-font: minor-latin;">he
colour of an object that we see depends on the light absorbing pigments it
contains and the wavelength of the illuminating light.</span></i><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; line-height: 107%;">
The slide shows how this manifests for a range of pigments and various colours of the illuminating
light. It demonstrates that <i>white light allows objects to be
viewed in the largest variety of colours. </i>Light sources other than white give only a
limited description of the colour of objects.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both;"><br /></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgA1oV3Yc4ccZGjMv6COJRqVhRdaPqn4wc6vhTQt02UiuP707SgOPnYAN35IQSGF590e-1gu1WKgNqXoSL0LvOnyl92p4v-r_mJ6OuVcKaMyd8KFYD_kiMuMJNo9rXwHGD7hrQJ-pqGZPg/s1280/colours3jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgA1oV3Yc4ccZGjMv6COJRqVhRdaPqn4wc6vhTQt02UiuP707SgOPnYAN35IQSGF590e-1gu1WKgNqXoSL0LvOnyl92p4v-r_mJ6OuVcKaMyd8KFYD_kiMuMJNo9rXwHGD7hrQJ-pqGZPg/w640-h360/colours3jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div><br /></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><b><u><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt;"><br />
Autumn Colours_ An Example of Changing Colours:</span></u></b><b><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt;"> </span></b><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt;">During the autumn
season, many plants change colour from the summer green to yellow, orange and
red, and present a remarkable colourful display. <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/656274836058069289/9114090131341499899"><span style="color: blue;">The autumn colours are a consequence of changing pigment in
the leaves.</span></a><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt;">During the summer
plants receive plenty of sunlight and chlorophyll in the leaves uses solar
energy to synthesize sugars (photosynthesis). Chlorophyll reflects green
light and gives the leaves their green colour. Chlorophyll breaks
down during photosynthesis but is constantly replaced during the summer period.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span style="font-size: 16pt;">As autumn approaches,
chlorophyll production shuts down and the green colour of the leaves
fades. This lets </span><span style="font-size: 21.3333px;">characteristic</span><span style="font-size: 16pt;"> colours of other chemicals, already present throughout the summer
but masked by chlorophyll, to show. </span></span><i style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 16pt;">Carotenoids and
xanthophylls reflect yellow and orange light</i><span face="Arial, sans-serif"><span style="font-size: 16pt;"> and decay much more
slowly than chlorophyll. Ash and birch trees change colour to yellow
and orange first.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt;">The <i>pink, red
and purple</i> colours are due to the chemical <i>anthocyanin</i> which
is synthesized in the autumn - bright sunlight and above freezing temperature
help its production and give vivid colours in many trees like maples.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt;">The pigment before
the leaves fall is tannin and gives them a brown colour. Tannin in oaks
is the last pigment to breakdown.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><b><u><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt;">When the Eye-Brain
System Fails - Optical Illusions:</span></u></b><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt;"> I have mentioned that the
eyes send information about the external world to the brain as electrical
signals. Such signals have gaps and only contain limited information - the three cones respond to a broad
range of wavelength and do not provide a definite clue about the colour of the object. The brain then has the difficult task of interpreting this
scrappy information into a unique result - not just about colour of objects but
also their shape, size, motion and many other properties. The brain
relies heavily on past experiences and memory to accomplish this in a limited
time of the order of milliseconds. It is not surprising that sometimes
the brain reaches a wrong decision. <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/656274836058069289/9114090131341499899"><span style="color: blue;">How the eye/brain system works is discussed in the second
half of my blog</span></a>. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt;">It might be
instructive to give a few examples of the brain's failure to detect the correct
optical properties of objects in various contexts of colour, size, shape,
motion etc. To demonstrate this point, I have drawn some slides based on
some popular optical illusions. (Click on the slide to see full page view)</span></p><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgsgEwRKx4SkezSrWUOdSPBbvlgII0jDj7iWr6S4MhY19heoqS4JPqhZf2u9p0B_USF3UoVfUczy4pd1iWijCA8Y__5QIHNG-iaM_TonlNFq8h2C5g_ytGXZ2IGsEJAgKsqjEcRcliK5nI/s1280/shadesjpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgsgEwRKx4SkezSrWUOdSPBbvlgII0jDj7iWr6S4MhY19heoqS4JPqhZf2u9p0B_USF3UoVfUczy4pd1iWijCA8Y__5QIHNG-iaM_TonlNFq8h2C5g_ytGXZ2IGsEJAgKsqjEcRcliK5nI/w640-h360/shadesjpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><p></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPYqikMvxtj_G0qlCvvgip_-6Y4y3MqBzBpGfY0pu-qy1XElvdiXscaoHcM0raI7rPEGaSfF612VAqbHwxwub38UfweThd2snw_QYOIZP4-ZYe9YRE8e2SY1URLjzus1Gzf8k6oVCgmUY/s1280/triand+recjpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjPYqikMvxtj_G0qlCvvgip_-6Y4y3MqBzBpGfY0pu-qy1XElvdiXscaoHcM0raI7rPEGaSfF612VAqbHwxwub38UfweThd2snw_QYOIZP4-ZYe9YRE8e2SY1URLjzus1Gzf8k6oVCgmUY/w640-h360/triand+recjpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div><br /></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhrH1NevNF1azndI-ASo_rvWHr_q0ynlk3WZAHh0yQmjWDox1jawbnNnzztflMhy4aqKNPd73foGueViYADvlZWzWLcHcwQHXJPT6Es4ldtKGBPucccrt4rsNAE7EEKgDt_tGGtw9KLJQM/s1280/perspjpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhrH1NevNF1azndI-ASo_rvWHr_q0ynlk3WZAHh0yQmjWDox1jawbnNnzztflMhy4aqKNPd73foGueViYADvlZWzWLcHcwQHXJPT6Es4ldtKGBPucccrt4rsNAE7EEKgDt_tGGtw9KLJQM/w640-h360/perspjpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2D5ofPKvmNs86XjJpzu66uTIcFFsnk8aNahp-PEGpgGFi4xWfeCx-e7IYxOfhWSZC8Ue4pqo_tPun-sgg-PSbqVWrpTCqCrQMmGygQllNnSpD06RT2nMven65U5kd6fZrvwJt-LB8DAA/s1280/dotsjpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh2D5ofPKvmNs86XjJpzu66uTIcFFsnk8aNahp-PEGpgGFi4xWfeCx-e7IYxOfhWSZC8Ue4pqo_tPun-sgg-PSbqVWrpTCqCrQMmGygQllNnSpD06RT2nMven65U5kd6fZrvwJt-LB8DAA/w640-h360/dotsjpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVg0Rc2m1Iq2_Fx2t8kougzXdDpzEgNAroyJkvYlWdnInCA8pcdVqKlm6H8MLBa-tu9gizeNNxfvq6A9EetzXb12YOeFAlHAGTuY6ZzoC9I4bFXJNpZG8vXAbGVp329p3j4ogurZ3M_KQ/s1280/ciclesjpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVg0Rc2m1Iq2_Fx2t8kougzXdDpzEgNAroyJkvYlWdnInCA8pcdVqKlm6H8MLBa-tu9gizeNNxfvq6A9EetzXb12YOeFAlHAGTuY6ZzoC9I4bFXJNpZG8vXAbGVp329p3j4ogurZ3M_KQ/w640-h360/ciclesjpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><span face=""Arial",sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><br /></span><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><span face=""Arial",sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">An illusion that is easy to see
is to stand on a bridge over a fast flowing river. On looking at the
water you feel as if the bridge is moving rapidly in a direction opposite to
the flow of the river. </span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><b><u><span face=""Arial",sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="color: blue;">How do Colours Work?</span></span></u></b><span face=""Arial",sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> Colours affect our mood,
feelings, emotions and behaviour; our reactions to colours are determined by a
combination of psychological, physiological, personal, social and cultural
factors. For example, in fashion and marketing, colour impressions can
account for <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/656274836058069289/9114090131341499899"><span style="color: blue;">60% of the acceptance or rejection of products and services</span></a>.
In Western societies, <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/656274836058069289/9114090131341499899"><span style="color: blue;">white represents purity and innocence,</span></a> but
in many Eastern countries white is seen as a symbol of mourning. It is
fascinating to explore how different colours can have contrasting meanings in
different cultures and contexts. A detailed list of how the meaning of
colours varies in different situations may be seen <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/656274836058069289/9114090131341499899"><span style="color: blue;">here</span></a>. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><span face=""Arial",sans-serif" style="font-size: 16pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">While it is well established that
colours do influence the way we perceive the world around us, it is not clear
to me how does it happen. The question is how do colours affect our mood
and behaviour? How do they work? The eye-brain system operates on a series of
electrochemical (EC) signals and it is not at all clear why a wavelength of 640
nm is seen as red, while light of wavelength around 520 nm is
green. This is probably a question that does not have an answer. It is the brain's way to make sense of the world around us. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; margin-bottom: 0cm;"><span style="font-size: medium;"><span style="font-family: georgia; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><u style="font-weight: bold;">Post Script:</u> </span><span style="font-family: georgia; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">This blog was written because</span><span style="font-family: georgia; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> many people I meet had wondered why the water in swimming pools is blue - also the striking blue colour of glaciers has been a source of confusion to many friends returning from trip to Alaska. In order to explain this, it is important to set a background about colours and this is what I have tried to do in this blog. Some fascinating physics is in play to give us the wonderful panoramic colours in the environment - the sky is blue during the day but at sunrise and sunsets it turns red or sometimes orange; clouds are white but grey as well, oceans are blue but look deep green sometimes etc. In my next blog, I shall try to explain the science behind these various observations.</span></span></p>
</div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><u style="color: red; font-weight: bold;">APPENDIX:</u><span style="color: red; font-weight: bold;"> </span></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: georgia; font-size: medium;">The following slides explain the way we perceive colours - not as primary red, green or blue but in terms of their hue (tone), saturation and brightness.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7qDcbW4THbe-LFUjYWveOUDbMJw5lGWfKl60A52tVx6yaFkSeJSxc7eM8DqXR5yXp16I7M_PsuMYbNE9oVbkMwxzsiMcWacQYpBt81_RVQW2890qWC3Ps1hBoQGvP56dPeW5yjRmkVBo/s1280/appjepg3.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh7qDcbW4THbe-LFUjYWveOUDbMJw5lGWfKl60A52tVx6yaFkSeJSxc7eM8DqXR5yXp16I7M_PsuMYbNE9oVbkMwxzsiMcWacQYpBt81_RVQW2890qWC3Ps1hBoQGvP56dPeW5yjRmkVBo/w640-h360/appjepg3.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiALXmjFrnOrHBgg9IZabv3gfIDbIyBj3GW9AC1yDgbDJWIR_2GdhWtJQq2sMuBULD1c672NhLvZjKOX8gxDGKcfw0Futls84OU0VEBzkz3PikgeOTWjRBZgO8onqk0rpvRWNVbjMPjUzs/s1280/appjpeg2.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiALXmjFrnOrHBgg9IZabv3gfIDbIyBj3GW9AC1yDgbDJWIR_2GdhWtJQq2sMuBULD1c672NhLvZjKOX8gxDGKcfw0Futls84OU0VEBzkz3PikgeOTWjRBZgO8onqk0rpvRWNVbjMPjUzs/w640-h360/appjpeg2.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7Jtxa8k7HHAu9iDfzB7d-QUXzh8HvLNctGGaw0lm9heDz0WkvLBC0rx-QqCFgC1Vx4rr6PB52ELLVMU7ohFRZ_7OAkrkoZdjQXnbll_169juLx_umZfroEbkSJQbcuBMi3IZf3dMqI9g/s1280/appjpeg1.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi7Jtxa8k7HHAu9iDfzB7d-QUXzh8HvLNctGGaw0lm9heDz0WkvLBC0rx-QqCFgC1Vx4rr6PB52ELLVMU7ohFRZ_7OAkrkoZdjQXnbll_169juLx_umZfroEbkSJQbcuBMi3IZf3dMqI9g/w640-h360/appjpeg1.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Thanks for reading. Comments are very welcomed. Please pass on the link to this blog to friends and family. </span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="color: #2b00fe; font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><i>Most slides (except the first two slides) and text in this blog have been prepared by myself and you are welcome to use them freely but please acknowledge this blog as </i></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;"><i>https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2020/10/colour-of-objects-visible-light.html</i></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div></div>Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.com2tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-656274836058069289.post-25371797478085282792020-10-13T12:12:00.005+01:002020-10-14T10:39:11.321+01:00Net-Zero by 2050 - How does One Eliminate Emissions from Agriculture, Heavy Transport & Industry? _A Community Education Feature<p> <a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2019/06/index-of-blogs-2018-2019.html" style="background-color: #f6f6f6; color: #de7008; font-family: verdana, sans-serif; font-size: x-large;">Index of Blogs</a><span face="" style="background-color: #f6f6f6; color: black; font-size: medium;"> and </span><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2019/06/index-of-blogs-2018-2019.html" style="background-color: #f6f6f6; color: #de7008; font-family: verdana, sans-serif; font-size: x-large;">Courses</a></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span face=""Verdana",sans-serif" style="color: #2b00fe; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><i>Urgent and world-wide action is required to make transition to clean energy. Business as usual will bring catastrophic environmenal and ecological changes for future generations.</i></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span face=""Verdana",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><i><span style="color: red;">UN warns that world risks becoming 'uninhabitable hell' for millions unless leaders take climate action </span><a href="https://edition.cnn.com/2020/10/13/world/un-natural-disasters-climate-intl-hnk/index.html" target="_blank">(October 13, 2020)</a></i></span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="background-color: #fefefe;"><span face="Arial, sans-serif">In a <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/656274836058069289/2537179747808528279"><span style="color: blue;">recent talk</span></a>, I had discussed the impact of global
warming and climate change on our planet. Dire as they are, it is
difficult to feel hopeful that the nations of the world will act in time to
mitigate the worst effects of climate change. Doing nothing will
simply make the problems worse with catastrophic consequences - we need to do
our best to limit climate change. The goal (2</span><span style="font-family: "Cambria Math", serif;">⁰</span><span face="Arial, sans-serif">C rise) and
aspiration (limit the rise to 1.5</span><span style="font-family: "Cambria Math", serif;">⁰</span><span face="Arial, sans-serif">C) of the 2015 Paris
Accord <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/656274836058069289/2537179747808528279"><span style="color: blue;">require</span></a> that by the year 2050,
CO2 net emissions are brought down to zero (Net Zero) from the
current levels of about 36 gigatons per year and significantly reduce the
emission of methane and nitrous oxide . Five years on, the progress made has
been disappointing; emissions have continued to increase and the scientific
opinion is converging to the view that by 2100, global warming will be in the
region of 3</span><span style="font-family: "Cambria Math", serif;">⁰</span></span><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="background-color: #fefefe;">C - a serious and frightening prospect. The following slides
summarize the situation:</span></span></p><p><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-Asezz3SpxIE59191mB39FX6V_boAeCOCMSPyNLitv4YDx5LP2Q0_PglmwgpmL66DOuRT58wFruib9Oj0kDNP_BcEXXhqQwJd3fBA584RS1An0xCu5bGYnqsyb4BgqjCc5zrb-0boiSw/s1280/jpeg+emissions.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi-Asezz3SpxIE59191mB39FX6V_boAeCOCMSPyNLitv4YDx5LP2Q0_PglmwgpmL66DOuRT58wFruib9Oj0kDNP_BcEXXhqQwJd3fBA584RS1An0xCu5bGYnqsyb4BgqjCc5zrb-0boiSw/w640-h360/jpeg+emissions.jpg" width="640" /></span></a></p><p><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEinNsjixrkm_clK8V38cUPfDEFFQ4DEF4do8Xup95ZoKHh1lOntCvxSGfnRR-AcHkTzAvpN7lZLsOqaaHfrvaBFOwQUe39xxbLRjrb7567-I3C5KI7bmP6Q5NTKDO2q2JKiOXX4gOO6ji4/s1280/riskjpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEinNsjixrkm_clK8V38cUPfDEFFQ4DEF4do8Xup95ZoKHh1lOntCvxSGfnRR-AcHkTzAvpN7lZLsOqaaHfrvaBFOwQUe39xxbLRjrb7567-I3C5KI7bmP6Q5NTKDO2q2JKiOXX4gOO6ji4/w640-h360/riskjpeg.jpg" width="640" /></span></a></div><p></p><p><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgWGRp6haEvbEnXOBrL9gelIa0UCpfGNlXRasXwc6uEaUv-OAagUbgBM_eHHln2curl3K8vp6cBuKiSC3zqzh_C3FFsjWas6fnpKzKkM_Hj3yLXVZh5daTc_Y0v6xQ5J3bAPZ_vT8YvYeQ/w640-h360/riskjpeg2.jpg" width="640" /></span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span face=""Verdana",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">In their mammoth <span style="color: blue;"><a href="https://www.ipcc.ch/site/assets/uploads/sites/2/2019/06/SR15_Full_Report_High_Res.pdf" target="_blank">2019 report</a></span> (630 pages), IPCC have looked at
various pathways for limiting global warming to 1.5</span><span style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Cambria Math"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">⁰</span><span face=""Verdana",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">C.</span><span face=""Verdana",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> </span><span face=""Verdana",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">
Essentially,</span><span face=""Verdana",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> </span><span face=""Verdana",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">there is a
lot of CO2 in the atmosphere already (411 parts per million - October 2020) and we continue to add more CO2 every day
(over the past decade CO2 levels have increased by</span><span face=""Verdana",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: Verdana; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> </span><span face=""Verdana",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/656274836058069289/2537179747808528279"><span style="color: blue;">24 parts per million</span></a> or 5.8%). <i><span style="color: #2b00fe;">All pathways require that we start to cut down CO2
emission now or in the very near future with Net Zero emissions by around 2050,
and also remove CO2 from the atmosphere at a rate depending on how soon and how fast we cut down emissions. </span></i>The later we start,
the more severe the reductions will have to be.<i> </i>In the next
slide, I show one of the pathways that IPCC have analysed - these
are theoretical possibilities and assume certain modest technological developments
will be forthcoming. Please read the report when you have a week to spare.<o:p></o:p></span></span></p><p></p><p><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjEq88jQjRcSVqwG6amM209nBDz9WeG1cia93R6tIWcbVnifSn1jpd1_uAPqC6bY_N-9KiIWCQlb84Dr5EGq3Acd5jRL-_aHlxVq1MDvPtdN_n31IPm1q2Qrbtj8v2q3Nu2oL8UZ2Hmhko/s1280/P3+IPCCjpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjEq88jQjRcSVqwG6amM209nBDz9WeG1cia93R6tIWcbVnifSn1jpd1_uAPqC6bY_N-9KiIWCQlb84Dr5EGq3Acd5jRL-_aHlxVq1MDvPtdN_n31IPm1q2Qrbtj8v2q3Nu2oL8UZ2Hmhko/w640-h360/P3+IPCCjpeg.jpg" width="640" /></span></a></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><u></u></span></b></p><div><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirCNIEWXdpdNgTsdCYDR58URlRsp2VxJxqcxJG3BSZoYzqKvmkTIH19p5AYJvxmNp322zc7XWroT50l3pgy-Y-p92XAGmNrKas7UzsnjoDzU7fml1wfQADo-Y3M8yFiu54yprQXb-rZu4/s1280/emissionjpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirCNIEWXdpdNgTsdCYDR58URlRsp2VxJxqcxJG3BSZoYzqKvmkTIH19p5AYJvxmNp322zc7XWroT50l3pgy-Y-p92XAGmNrKas7UzsnjoDzU7fml1wfQADo-Y3M8yFiu54yprQXb-rZu4/w640-h360/emissionjpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div><br /></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b><u><span face=""Verdana",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Cutting Emissions is Hard:</span></u></b><span face=""Verdana",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> Many studies have analysed scenarios to achieve net-zero by 2050. Most studies infer that achieving net-zero is possible with modest advancements in current technologies requiring some R&D effort. The costs are manageable too - ranging from 0.5 to 2% of the GDP. The scientific, technological and economic feasibility of achieving net-zero is convincing - the question is (has been over the past decades) - do the nations have the political will to act? Will the world rise to the challenge? So far the progress in reducing emissions has been disappointing. </span></span><div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span face=""Verdana",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Let us look at some of the reasons that make it difficult for nations to adopt strong abatement policies.</span></span><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b><u><span face=""Verdana",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">1.</span></u></b><span face=""Verdana",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> <b><u>Energy
demand is continuing to increase</u><i>. </i></b>Our standard of living
depends directly on the amount of energy we use. In rich countries, most people
will not agree to sacrifice the way they live. In developing countries,
people aspire to live 'better' and that translates into increased energy
consumption. Additionally, population is expected to be greater than
10 billion by 2100, up from 7.8 billion now. Politically, national governments find it difficult to plan for any reduction in energy consumption. Also most governments work on debt funded economic models, underpinned by perpetual growth - more consumption is encouraged by businesses.</span></span></p><p>
</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b><u><span face=""Verdana",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">2.</span></u></b><span face=""Verdana",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> <b><u>Fossil
Fuels produce most of the energy just now:</u></b> About 80% of the
global energy production uses fossil fuels which emit copious amount of CO2
into the atmosphere. Renewables (solar & wind) generate a meagre 2% of the global energy. With vested interests preventing change, the task of
replacing fossil fuels by renewable energy is non-trivial. <o:p></o:p></span></span></p><span><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjdte3keIwK7wY95k4qJtDiEWDYzkCxyyyat5k3vjAMUSfHl97AKV3G0c53AITU4arak8PlshSOJ25CA53O_Ln_xzsBByx_n8yUIfhe85sxmsLvu1XmFTgf-XYlUZuADURUfn-d0Fh_t6U/s1280/FFjpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjdte3keIwK7wY95k4qJtDiEWDYzkCxyyyat5k3vjAMUSfHl97AKV3G0c53AITU4arak8PlshSOJ25CA53O_Ln_xzsBByx_n8yUIfhe85sxmsLvu1XmFTgf-XYlUZuADURUfn-d0Fh_t6U/w640-h360/FFjpeg.jpg" width="640" /></span></a></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Fossil fuels also produce 64% of the electricity
with hydroelectric, nuclear and renewables (solar and wind) making up the rest.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">It may be that <i>electricity
generation</i> by renewables (mostly solar and wind) can be ramped up to such an
extent that we can have near 100% decarbonised electricity. A factor of 10
increase in solar and wind installations will be required to replace fossil
fuels in current <i>electricity</i> generation. <span style="color: #2b00fe; font-style: italic;">However,
note that electricity is less than 20% of the total energy needs of the world
which are largely met by fossil fuel combustion; <b>solar and wind currently
supply only about 2% of the total energy needs</b>. </span>Nuclear and hydro-electric energy generation capacity is not expected to increase much and likely to stay near current level for the foreseeable future.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span face=""Verdana",sans-serif" style="mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Another important reason for not burning fossil
fuels is that they produce large amounts of polluting gases and particulate
matter - <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/656274836058069289/2537179747808528279"><span style="color: blue;">the air pollution is estimated to cause 7 million premature
deaths each year</span></a>.</span><o:p style="font-size: 18pt;"></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><b><u>3.</u></b> <b><u>Harder to Abate Sectors:</u></b> Besides meeting
current electricity demand, renewable energy can also replace fossil fuels in
light transport (electric cars), much of agricultural machinery, space heating
and light-weight industrial plants. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span style="text-align: left;">However, it is not cost effective to fully electrify heavy transport
(shipping and aviation) and the manufacturing of cement, iron and steel.
Plastic industry uses lot of fossil fuels too. These are </span><i style="text-align: left;">'Harder to
Abate'</i><span style="text-align: left;"> sectors as the technology to replace fossil fuel generated
energy by electricity either does not exist (aviation is a good example) or is
relatively inefficient. The emissions produced by different sectors are shown:</span></span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlIxiD-NANbvJKsZhM5eVup9rD81c-PRTfN_B1V0wD3DJ-1UsELAzbCS4KZ4c2uLWiSXQlqxDmz1UsMbnjK2ps0_nK2vMA87OOXsKw3uP_299TC16kUVeyHcn_WQLxTjg2PSReSz9JcRg/s1280/emissionsjpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhlIxiD-NANbvJKsZhM5eVup9rD81c-PRTfN_B1V0wD3DJ-1UsELAzbCS4KZ4c2uLWiSXQlqxDmz1UsMbnjK2ps0_nK2vMA87OOXsKw3uP_299TC16kUVeyHcn_WQLxTjg2PSReSz9JcRg/w640-h360/emissionsjpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: medium;">The following slide is a summary of figure 3 in <a href="Davis et al., Science 360, eaas9793 (2018)" target="_blank">Davis et al</a></span>.<br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhLz06YFQvKA9XWR4gBi7JrLO5LjwPHYoUrM88Yt2KxLakrtcPwPrA2V4yg7D62m_whev-5QEmQkMAbtjWz0wNCrou5GCt9cQGfwwyr8GlXM6Md8IPZJ1Qj5PInt3E41Xxshtqtts38-ec/s1280/energydensity+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhLz06YFQvKA9XWR4gBi7JrLO5LjwPHYoUrM88Yt2KxLakrtcPwPrA2V4yg7D62m_whev-5QEmQkMAbtjWz0wNCrou5GCt9cQGfwwyr8GlXM6Md8IPZJ1Qj5PInt3E41Xxshtqtts38-ec/w640-h360/energydensity+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div></span><div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Another hard to abate sector is agriculture (AFOLU), particularly animal
farming where cattle numbers have increased extremely rapidly. They
generate large amounts of methane (enteric fermentation). Globally,
ruminant livestock produce about <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/656274836058069289/2537179747808528279"><span style="color: blue;">3.3 GT CO2 </span></a>equivalent of enteric methane
emissions. This contribution is expected to increase in future years. See <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/656274836058069289/2537179747808528279"><span style="color: blue;">also</span></a> where it is estimated that humans and
farm animals exhale in excess of 8.5 GT CO2 per year - this is a large
contribution to overall emissions and difficult to reduce. </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><b style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-large;"><u>What Are Our Options?</u></b><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: x-large;"> </span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;">
</p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">1. Energy efficiency: We can drastically reduce the energy we use (increase energy efficiency -
this means that we cut down the amount of energy to perform a task). It is also
important to make serious move to a circular economy with zero waste. It
is <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/656274836058069289/2537179747808528279" target="_blank"><span style="color: blue;">estimated</span></a> that energy
efficiency gains can reduce energy requirements significantly and it is
possible to keep the energy demand in 2050 at 2018 levels or lower! (See
Slide below) <i>This will certainly help limit CO2 emissions</i> and
must be seriously implemented. <span style="color: red;">However, as long as fossil fuels are in
use, CO2 concentration in the atmosphere will continue to increase.</span></span><span face=""Arial",sans-serif" style="color: red; font-size: 14pt; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;"> </span><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 14pt;"> <o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: arial;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg7K0jLU-X0uYS-M0LGJ6bya9BduSWdaxVAbs6EooDOeamLqnyUu6MJAc0Cy8mkyxs8ZLLazaWvarMHKbbDZIbK6VUmi3XEHzMR-SJv-72VzWukVgWLkZJpWTxhLpL8MP-ewS6AhAdcgXg/s1280/energy+demandjpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg7K0jLU-X0uYS-M0LGJ6bya9BduSWdaxVAbs6EooDOeamLqnyUu6MJAc0Cy8mkyxs8ZLLazaWvarMHKbbDZIbK6VUmi3XEHzMR-SJv-72VzWukVgWLkZJpWTxhLpL8MP-ewS6AhAdcgXg/w640-h360/energy+demandjpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Energy efficiency on a personal level - keeping the central heating
lower by 1 or 2⁰C, switching off lights in unoccupied
rooms, walking or cycling instead of using car for short distance journeys -
can be very effective. On a community and national level, much can be
done to help - for example, heat pumps provide a factor of three savings in energy.
Most buildings could be heated or cooled using heat pumps with a reduction of
up to 70% in CO2 emissions from this sector. The ultimate goal will be to
run the heat pumps on renewable energy and completely eliminate CO2 emissions
from space heating and cooling. <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">2. Renewable energy: Massively expand existing renewable energy generation to replace
fossil fuels. Remember, nuclear and hydro energy have extremely limited
growth potential. Solar and wind energy is already cheaper than fossil fuel
energy and further price reductions are expected. Over the next 10 years,
it will make good economic sense to replace much of fossil fuel use (wherever
possible) by expanding renewable energy generation.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhRitU-VXN-MypoeU480eMs65UlyLYfAUK9MX7hr8RHE73OZNPQpt3djm5XX2Cif1gkcWJ_AlcFLDBoTrEVQFfm9uFU5F9y3iiH7HOgRbBilLCl_BVdhNVBs-tQ2Yi4hDA9RbNubtf2js/s1280/netzerojpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhhRitU-VXN-MypoeU480eMs65UlyLYfAUK9MX7hr8RHE73OZNPQpt3djm5XX2Cif1gkcWJ_AlcFLDBoTrEVQFfm9uFU5F9y3iiH7HOgRbBilLCl_BVdhNVBs-tQ2Yi4hDA9RbNubtf2js/w640-h360/netzerojpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: left;"><br /></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: left;">3. Hydrogen economy: Use renewable energy generated hydrogen (green hydrogen) to replace
the high energy density fossil fuels in harder to abate sectors. Hydrogen
is basically a way to store primary energy produced either by fossil fuels or
solar/wind or biomass. It can be transported over short distances, but can also be
used to synthesize other high energy density fuels (ammonia, methanol and
ethanol) for long distance transport, chemicals and in iron & steel
industries.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7Ty7J8-Jtc_PJK6XHXxs50Vk7NHGKXyukNCb7o-YiJknyuKrKJXGB4f8frDHjn2NmN5cqs_Q4rhZXi2m3wNuC5vdK7ic58zRQSKJif5vptVuRphjxWKNs4SkyVJmEFUwDae7qdTD6OrM/s1280/hydrogen+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj7Ty7J8-Jtc_PJK6XHXxs50Vk7NHGKXyukNCb7o-YiJknyuKrKJXGB4f8frDHjn2NmN5cqs_Q4rhZXi2m3wNuC5vdK7ic58zRQSKJif5vptVuRphjxWKNs4SkyVJmEFUwDae7qdTD6OrM/w640-h360/hydrogen+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Currently, most of the 75 million tonnes (in 2019) of hydrogen is
obtained from steam reforming of natural gas (grey hydrogen), and is used in
fertilizers, refining petrochemicals and in the production of ammonia and
methanol in the chemical industry. <i>Hydrogen production using
fossil fuel energy added 0.85 GT of CO2 to the atmosphere in 2019.</i> <o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">It is expected that by 2050, the emission free production of 500 million
tonnes of green and blue hydrogen will <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/656274836058069289/2537179747808528279"><span style="color: blue;">displace 1400 Mtoe </span></a>(million tonnes of oil
equivalent) of fossil fuels to generate 17000 TWh of energy. (1 kg of hydrogen
generates 33 kWh; 1 kWh = 1 unit of electricity).</span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"><span style="text-align: left;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">4. Biomass energy: Biomass is any organic, biological or plant matter
(excluding fossil fuels) which can be converted into a usable energy source;
for example, trees, plants, wood, grasses, organic wastes etc. In
biomass, energy is stored in the form of carbohydrates (cellulose, starch and
sugar) that are produced in the photosynthesis of solar energy by plants. <span style="color: red;">Biomass is a renewable energy
source</span>; however, as is often claimed, it is debatable if biomass is net
emission free (carbon neutral); or if biomass with carbon capture, use and
storage (CCUS) is a negative emission energy source.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Essentially, plants use atmospheric CO2 to make carbohydrates – the CO2
is released back to the atmosphere when biomass is used to generate
energy. New plant growth will repeat this process – renewable energy
source. However, how land is used to cultivate plants for bioenergy is
critical for biomass to be carbon neutral. Additionally, the processing
of biomass to synthesize biofuels requires energy that is currently supplied by
fossil fuels. <i>This makes the lifecycle biomass energy a net GHG
emitter</i>. A good example is the synthesis of biofuels from sugarcane
or grains which are generally grown on crop lands or by clearing forests. This
not only removes carbon sinks from the environment (creates <i>biofuel
carbon debt</i>) but also adversely affects land availability for agriculture.
In contrast, biofuels made from<sup> </sup>waste biomass or from biomass
grown on degraded and abandoned<sup> </sup>agricultural lands planted with
perennials incur little or no<sup> </sup>carbon debt and can offer
immediate and sustained GHG advantages.</span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVxxK6O5sC2nUSxNaURTaCCtQ2FcZZO7HbKhgAUt9gg1wQf9gzTKjQf02yyXs5J8vIxJWONSPoLpMi_bldNpM2cOptDep3Ps8Uso3bEL0xaccj8oqaY8ArYEIB6I5n8lPrKv8Baxoe5N0/s1280/biomassjpeg.jpg" style="font-size: 18pt; margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhVxxK6O5sC2nUSxNaURTaCCtQ2FcZZO7HbKhgAUt9gg1wQf9gzTKjQf02yyXs5J8vIxJWONSPoLpMi_bldNpM2cOptDep3Ps8Uso3bEL0xaccj8oqaY8ArYEIB6I5n8lPrKv8Baxoe5N0/w640-h360/biomassjpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></p></span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Notice that used
cooking oil is much better than other biomass because it does not require any
land use.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"> </span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">5. Carbon capture: </span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Capturing CO2 produced in industrial plants using fossils is an expensive process and significantly reduces their energy production efficiency. Also, CO2 produced by diffused sources like automobiles, planes, farming etc. is very difficult to capture at source. This does not affect the CO2 already present in the atmosphere. As we have discussed above, some CO2 emissions, like CO2 exhaled by humans and farm animals, will be impossible to abate and it will be important to capture CO2 from the atmosphere to achieve net-zero.</span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">We need to develop carbon
capture, use and storage technology with aim to remove, by the year 2050, about
10 gigatonnes of CO2 from the atmosphere per year. </span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9Hh2nEVOmmGOCrTjbWyp8hyOQ0IqY9KxKqhhrHOHcNWGOU-LV2hd_bOpy6eNlMIUGNaI1OdsdASnpP485ccRix9dK-sJqV8U_jnH38a1m86ehPYCsw99cc7GvMlxOxBIAOQPwR9vO0yk/s1280/ccus+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9Hh2nEVOmmGOCrTjbWyp8hyOQ0IqY9KxKqhhrHOHcNWGOU-LV2hd_bOpy6eNlMIUGNaI1OdsdASnpP485ccRix9dK-sJqV8U_jnH38a1m86ehPYCsw99cc7GvMlxOxBIAOQPwR9vO0yk/w640-h360/ccus+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></p></div></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large; text-align: left;">The best hope seems to be direct air capture (DAC) technology where the atmospheric air is pumped through a system with special filters to absorb CO2. On heating, the filters release the CO2 that can be used in industrial processes or stored as carbonate salts in geological depositories. The following slide explains the process:</span></div><p></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; text-align: left;"></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjw2Z3SnFfZN4Rhd7Qe3u6OhNhhsDEMmgXkuqJK9pE9WpuQNtsBtSomYJmvHUUeeHWbZU8EtSZYlshKFlcHIFCE0qLLhNlkUQi_FfVgC_SW-XX30TCqSj2mjcue_h3soMvf6l73CB5yGys/s1280/DAC+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjw2Z3SnFfZN4Rhd7Qe3u6OhNhhsDEMmgXkuqJK9pE9WpuQNtsBtSomYJmvHUUeeHWbZU8EtSZYlshKFlcHIFCE0qLLhNlkUQi_FfVgC_SW-XX30TCqSj2mjcue_h3soMvf6l73CB5yGys/w640-h360/DAC+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><br /><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">The current cost of DAC is of the order
of $400 per captured tonne of CO2. To capture 10 GT CO2 per year will
cost 4 trillion dollars! DAC is a new technology and it is expected that
cost will substantially come down in the future.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span>Reforestation: Trees, through
photosynthesis absorb CO2 from the atmosphere and store it as wood.
Planting new trees is a great idea for helping to reduce CO2 atmospheric
concentration. </span><a href="https://www.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/656274836058069289/2537179747808528279"><span style="color: blue;">1t.org </span></a><span> mission is to plant one
trillion trees by 2030 to combat the worst effects of climate change.
However, one notes that trees take time to mature and the process is too slow
to meet the goal of Net-Zero by 2050. Reforestation is a great idea and
will help in reducing CO2 conecentrations.</span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">BioEnergy with Carbon Capture and
Storage (BECCS): </span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The idea is to grow crops that
soak up CO2 and then burn them to produce energy but capture and store all the
CO2 that is produced. To meet the Net-Zero goal, we shall need to deploy
huge amounts of land which would affect agricultural production at a time when
global population is increasing. It is estimated that BECCS could cause
an increase in food prices by 3 to 5 times by 2050 - an unacceptable burden on
the world's poor nations. </span><span style="font-family: arial;"> </span></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">6. Transition to plant protein: Make a rapid transition from farm
based meat/protein to plant protein. At present, there is no other way to
reduce the enteric emissions from cattle whose numbers have been increasing
rapidly over the past 50 years. Switching from animal to plant protein
will also directly reduce the emissions from animal farming.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><i><span style="background: rgb(246, 246, 246); color: blue;">Nothing will benefit health and increase chances
for survival of life on Earth as much as the evolution to a vegetarian
diet. ...Albert Einstein (<a href="https://www.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/656274836058069289/2537179747808528279"><span style="color: #de7008;">quoted</span></a>)</span></i><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><span style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #4c1130;">AFOLU sector is a big emitter of GHGs and rather difficult to abate. A 2020 report by McKinsey has analysed the options in detail and the slide summarizes their findings:</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHc6dDqbWcBRMrsygHW1q1GBvcwwmoFOqwV-sJb-T41yB49wTIz0iomaZXFyKZrKEK0iAVOW_7FpCdSqDHjmH6r4DtKsbAENtMkvQPVoMbbJcnXWf5ItmqOkh3B_QA1pL_C2AtbewPtiU/s1280/afolujpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjHc6dDqbWcBRMrsygHW1q1GBvcwwmoFOqwV-sJb-T41yB49wTIz0iomaZXFyKZrKEK0iAVOW_7FpCdSqDHjmH6r4DtKsbAENtMkvQPVoMbbJcnXWf5ItmqOkh3B_QA1pL_C2AtbewPtiU/w640-h360/afolujpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></span></div><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><br /><span style="background: rgb(255, 255, 255); color: #4c1130;"><b><u>Where do we go from here?</u></b><br /></span></span><p></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: arial;">The above list is a big ask but is doable - given the will and
co-operation of the nations of the world. Renewable electricity is already
competitive with fossil fuels generated electricity despite the <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/656274836058069289/2537179747808528279"><span style="color: blue;">5+ trillion dollars of subsidy that fossil fuel industry
enjoys.</span></a> Much of the basic technology exists, and can easily be
developed further to accomplish full decarbonisation of the industry. The time
window to start is very narrow - may be one or two years. We have known about climate crisis for decades but have failed to act. Action at global level is required and it
is difficult to be optimistic that we shall be able to limit global warming to 1.5⁰C or even to 2⁰</span><span style="font-family: arial;">C. </span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Only six countries have legally binding position to achieve
net-zero (click <a href="https://www.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/656274836058069289/2537179747808528279"><span style="color: blue;">here for the list</span></a> + China) while some
important polluters (e.g. the USA) have effectively given up on it. Despite
announcing their goal to reach net-zero by 2060, China is going ahead with the
building of new coal power stations - it is not clear how serious these
commitments are.</span></span><span face="Arial, sans-serif" style="font-size: 14pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: arial;"><a href="https://news.trust.org/item/20190731133649-zkxm6/" target="_blank">India expects to increase its coal-fired electricity generation by 22% over the next three years</a>. Such facilities have an operational life span of 20 to 40 years. Demand of electricity is increasing rapidly in India and one can be sympathetic to the need to increase generation capacity quickly. This sort of situation just highlights the result of <i>failure to act in time</i>. With proper R&D support renewable energy could have been developed quicker and is the obvious choice for generating additional power - particularly in a country like India where plentiful solar energy is available.</span></span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"><u style="font-weight: bold;">Concluding Remarks:</u> It is important to meet the net-zero target. This is scientifically/technologically possible but requires serious effort by all countries of the world. The cost of abatement may be as much as 2% of global GDP (~3 trillion dollars per year); this is affordable. In absence of effective action, soon it may be difficult to meet the </span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: arial; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">1.5</span><span style="font-family: arial; mso-bidi-font-family: "Cambria Math"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">⁰</span><span style="font-family: arial; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">C</span><span style="font-family: arial;"> or 2</span><span style="font-family: arial; mso-bidi-font-family: "Cambria Math"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">⁰</span><span style="font-family: arial; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">C</span></span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;"> target but that will make the world a much less pleasant place to live - this is the only planet we have.</span></p><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><i><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Thanks for reading. Any comments will be appreciated. </span><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">Please pass on the link to this blog to your friends and family.</span></i></p></div></div>Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-656274836058069289.post-1554629048055577622020-08-31T21:12:00.011+01:002020-10-14T15:15:18.405+01:00Climate Change - Present Status & Future Prospects: Talk at WES (Scotland) <div class="separator"><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2019/06/index-of-blogs-2018-2019.html" style="background-color: #f6f6f6; color: #de7008; font-family: verdana, sans-serif; font-size: x-large;">Index of Blogs</a><span face="" style="background-color: #f6f6f6; color: black; font-size: medium;"> and </span><a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2019/06/index-of-blogs-2018-2019.html" style="background-color: #f6f6f6; color: #de7008; font-family: verdana, sans-serif; font-size: x-large;">Courses</a></div><p> <span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">It
was a pleasure to talk to the Scottish branch of the Women's Engineering
Society on Sunday 31st August about Climate Change - where we are just now and
what might be happening in the coming decades? In the following, I am
publishing the slides used for the talk with some minor additions.
Virtual meetings provide welcome break from the isolation created by Covid-19;
I believe that this is a great way to communicate science in the community and
I hope to use this medium much more in the future. </span></p>
<p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">The slides form the complete
talk. Commentary between the slides provides further explanation and the
links are generally to websites where more detailed discussion of the topic is
available.</span><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p><b><span style="color: red; font-family: "Arial",sans-serif; font-size: 20.0pt;">Please click on a slide to see
its full page image</span></b><span style="font-family: Arial, sans-serif; font-size: 20pt;"><o:p></o:p></span></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"> </span><b style="font-family: verdana; font-size: x-large;"><u>Slides:</u></b></p><p><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b></b></span></p><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><b><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6ZJynRBaO4H_8k3IhAPVeBqLqXvZL6hsyBjce26eBabdFLbujkPo5I8hwGeWRSExDcXKwGmexUnuZfkgzUsqA3Nnti9oXRi666hNQS3bFDAtfelsOTLOFufYlddDK60JbOP7Tgv4lS0U/s1280/Slide2.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEg6ZJynRBaO4H_8k3IhAPVeBqLqXvZL6hsyBjce26eBabdFLbujkPo5I8hwGeWRSExDcXKwGmexUnuZfkgzUsqA3Nnti9oXRi666hNQS3bFDAtfelsOTLOFufYlddDK60JbOP7Tgv4lS0U/s640/Slide2.JPG" width="640" /></a></b></span></div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><div>Often people are confused about the difference between weather and climate. Weather at a particular location describes atmospheric conditions at an instant in time and is highly changeable, while climate is the mean conditions over <i>a long period of time </i>and refers to an extended region. For details <a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2019/11/making-sense-of-our-changing-climate-2.html" target="_blank">click here</a>. </div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi48AYCSvKfO83AmlHTUAI6J6HkNyopD16dqZ0LXgpQzckzR-ty9vTZROSBB1kZ0RbxMw9WxTeK0AoLezgUVRpfETwzeXMA4UEti4VJLd_CcCgusFPHsydpuyaRbzpjtwwad_UMe7FgJFo/s1280/Slide3.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi48AYCSvKfO83AmlHTUAI6J6HkNyopD16dqZ0LXgpQzckzR-ty9vTZROSBB1kZ0RbxMw9WxTeK0AoLezgUVRpfETwzeXMA4UEti4VJLd_CcCgusFPHsydpuyaRbzpjtwwad_UMe7FgJFo/s640/Slide3.JPG" width="640" /></a></div>The indicators point to a warming world. For example, water expands when heated. An increase in the sea surface temperature will result in increased volume of water, and sea levels will rise. Similarly global warming will result in a loss of ice in the Arctic Ocean and from the ice caps on mountains where ice will melt due to higher temperatures. Note that mountain ice-melt provides fresh water for drinking and irrigation to a large fraction of the world population and if these glaciers eventually disappear then it will be catastrophic for people downstream - it is expected that by the year 2100, the glaciers in the Himalayas will be reduced to one third of their present size - 2 billion people depend on the fresh water from the glaciers. <br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6B35lRPQfwRjLOtZjSw0-CnG9KYW1pYWOfzVW8JZUDFtzOqUPAIOKvGZLUh5DGNFDHc0yBJIpZFvXpl3_EM7UstgoW7_nE6DpiCs0mctKd0wB8ojDtsYnjqxtL1OvZEajw4L1PRnz8CM/s1280/Slide4.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh6B35lRPQfwRjLOtZjSw0-CnG9KYW1pYWOfzVW8JZUDFtzOqUPAIOKvGZLUh5DGNFDHc0yBJIpZFvXpl3_EM7UstgoW7_nE6DpiCs0mctKd0wB8ojDtsYnjqxtL1OvZEajw4L1PRnz8CM/s640/Slide4.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div>For a detailed discussion of the loss of biodiversity, please <a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2020/08/biodiversity-loss-in-anthropocene.html" target="_blank">click here.</a><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjLfSI1Mf_jJSqQkOcrXKXhWlX6A3a-eyKGT9NUJpaibLjeCuaQ-5iGzJRy8EmbDqXk8rL8JOZvxygVTTOEvfwgp8upoMNTxFAAeCf5SZhP2EOpFufMTIURT-kPTOgUYKXjeo0CLFM-oio/s1280/Slide5.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjLfSI1Mf_jJSqQkOcrXKXhWlX6A3a-eyKGT9NUJpaibLjeCuaQ-5iGzJRy8EmbDqXk8rL8JOZvxygVTTOEvfwgp8upoMNTxFAAeCf5SZhP2EOpFufMTIURT-kPTOgUYKXjeo0CLFM-oio/s640/Slide5.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi6ZiyA7lgIaeS7Koa2SPsD3wg5BwfutfQpP73WfCHzW5KAeeKOauFgD8GBfQebNsUrl_dDAKqpRARd2GHvqpUAjzETgioRj9no4Df2Jkv0JLZrmZVY5vJLvOS3Zg-I22K_Sf3JqR1god8/s1280/Slide6.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi6ZiyA7lgIaeS7Koa2SPsD3wg5BwfutfQpP73WfCHzW5KAeeKOauFgD8GBfQebNsUrl_dDAKqpRARd2GHvqpUAjzETgioRj9no4Df2Jkv0JLZrmZVY5vJLvOS3Zg-I22K_Sf3JqR1god8/s640/Slide6.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9BMjNFJVP1aKwoT6S93u1Sp_K-r12DATkVwkq1PvJgzfS1Jp8VhweRAP6_J9-tXGoV40BsWo6hAJbE_-rNc1rlqnEwxXXoitQ-45JuExIB9Eb3bj4WiGM9PMZbKNOEO0Rvyp_zltw9pc/s1280/Slide7.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj9BMjNFJVP1aKwoT6S93u1Sp_K-r12DATkVwkq1PvJgzfS1Jp8VhweRAP6_J9-tXGoV40BsWo6hAJbE_-rNc1rlqnEwxXXoitQ-45JuExIB9Eb3bj4WiGM9PMZbKNOEO0Rvyp_zltw9pc/s640/Slide7.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">The rate of population increase has dropped considerably in recent years, and it is expected to fall to 0.1% annual increase by the year 2100. That still means that the population will double every 700 years and could reach more than 20 billion by the year 3000. One has also to deal with all the problems created by inverted population pyramids etc!</span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_DYPJ5oePp7CXWwtCPWTPldOju1r8p3S40GvLIl-ANNCnWNbTSqgqGBzmlEikxGyLyeWC_6wZg6VAMb__6dq-VzYe5Xxp_QUwUvTn9IULIF1UIsaiQAs1H9h8D6LRMaQtR-VFEmNx450/s1280/Slide8.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi_DYPJ5oePp7CXWwtCPWTPldOju1r8p3S40GvLIl-ANNCnWNbTSqgqGBzmlEikxGyLyeWC_6wZg6VAMb__6dq-VzYe5Xxp_QUwUvTn9IULIF1UIsaiQAs1H9h8D6LRMaQtR-VFEmNx450/s640/Slide8.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXHZ23kTAF3qBfmpmcbht4WzHMpDgY-sVwhdC5F1ODnDFzeNiqrI1CdeoBClHMQz-HPAEYHY_f_rCJ8HxKqbE61GCnmFsAYKi3dXPHI5ZjS39LOil0D6sHgKF9Kv18hY_2jFDI-3zNF-Y/s1280/Slide9.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjXHZ23kTAF3qBfmpmcbht4WzHMpDgY-sVwhdC5F1ODnDFzeNiqrI1CdeoBClHMQz-HPAEYHY_f_rCJ8HxKqbE61GCnmFsAYKi3dXPHI5ZjS39LOil0D6sHgKF9Kv18hY_2jFDI-3zNF-Y/s640/Slide9.JPG" width="640" /></a></div>While the rich countries caused most of the emissions, the fast developing economies of China, India, Brazil and others are consuming resources at a higher rate than before - these countries represent a much larger population block and it seems unlikely that consumption and hence emissions will start to go down anytime soon.<br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; font-weight: bold; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisVwiikoUHiYi_1OlhPeqN7kqzd-sUwSHlOrhV9d-wEPSf61ZwnF-NOe-01vO3o31pmZXWYxZ76EtA41IUApj8jyhKyxhIJ4sCuWNzHmiC0lX4BIDW11iBBUro9Eq3DbDOoejfhftADK8/s1280/Slide10.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEisVwiikoUHiYi_1OlhPeqN7kqzd-sUwSHlOrhV9d-wEPSf61ZwnF-NOe-01vO3o31pmZXWYxZ76EtA41IUApj8jyhKyxhIJ4sCuWNzHmiC0lX4BIDW11iBBUro9Eq3DbDOoejfhftADK8/s640/Slide10.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8P_thEeuLYYhQ-elrNy8G25Dq4ObMBk1BRoFqshXAp0htK43nesdRmfuhGPglNTtE788iM0vwTGNoAtKuR8MjN3hlDGjolABk1SJPXVo6nBkwp_2dJFnZg0c9owMzxJSw3gPHfPQi2TE/s1280/Slide13.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj8P_thEeuLYYhQ-elrNy8G25Dq4ObMBk1BRoFqshXAp0htK43nesdRmfuhGPglNTtE788iM0vwTGNoAtKuR8MjN3hlDGjolABk1SJPXVo6nBkwp_2dJFnZg0c9owMzxJSw3gPHfPQi2TE/s640/Slide13.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjEm-XG0mbfRsde44kSV4KlkBBRwS6dTLC1Ipl1MtobFV-Basza3eRPryJMYiCqxm-UPIM8xHMgjMb7SomALE7e_Cw_0OyOXyTdyYOoEtvH6nnvwUiw8zMmgSe12V-xaZ6s4gPjy-fzZDU/s1280/Slide14.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjEm-XG0mbfRsde44kSV4KlkBBRwS6dTLC1Ipl1MtobFV-Basza3eRPryJMYiCqxm-UPIM8xHMgjMb7SomALE7e_Cw_0OyOXyTdyYOoEtvH6nnvwUiw8zMmgSe12V-xaZ6s4gPjy-fzZDU/s640/Slide14.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjK6y7l2WBITAOkpM5TrU5E4g8X4d6HXJWXQPMleH3MhklXNA-6Ph_pqGrbObHXkJOZWgYIvcxRmLrcgPb1noF9KoBYPC877Nc1dQ5FZUQaMXpvFDVmgGm50Viu1n3WToj2zuF7zRjT1eM/s1280/Slide15.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjK6y7l2WBITAOkpM5TrU5E4g8X4d6HXJWXQPMleH3MhklXNA-6Ph_pqGrbObHXkJOZWgYIvcxRmLrcgPb1noF9KoBYPC877Nc1dQ5FZUQaMXpvFDVmgGm50Viu1n3WToj2zuF7zRjT1eM/s640/Slide15.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiwwQ0O20NhyyZjaU4OWTpDG2qv_yI7GOQdjeUuge2zRFQZVIFe7FAqX20GW5KpIvuC18p9fQai_jnbTjkWsw_jYEjRhHjs4JmU6uEg2v4Ks2ceuNn-yMdYitNRIa_oTgWuTEveKshJZo4/s1280/Slide16.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiwwQ0O20NhyyZjaU4OWTpDG2qv_yI7GOQdjeUuge2zRFQZVIFe7FAqX20GW5KpIvuC18p9fQai_jnbTjkWsw_jYEjRhHjs4JmU6uEg2v4Ks2ceuNn-yMdYitNRIa_oTgWuTEveKshJZo4/s640/Slide16.JPG" width="640" /></a></div>While solar and wind are the most promising alternative energy technologies just now, and they have helped to cover the additional global energy demand of the past decade, it is difficult to see how they can replace fossil fuels to meet the full global energy use. Both solar and wind are excellent for producing electricity - but technologies need to be developed for electrification of transport, manufacturing etc. <br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjkotBH_2mSXI_UYpaFBpy0kTxsh7sBGBynujVuzil0BJocDIsUReX0cllXCxcqONxU1rgPVvzpsxjcEQhlrH826Fn83fis2nIiepPmXCu39oS9j81sKmndVNznsxg5YVlLBLjP3LOfMgg/s1280/Slide17.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjkotBH_2mSXI_UYpaFBpy0kTxsh7sBGBynujVuzil0BJocDIsUReX0cllXCxcqONxU1rgPVvzpsxjcEQhlrH826Fn83fis2nIiepPmXCu39oS9j81sKmndVNznsxg5YVlLBLjP3LOfMgg/s640/Slide17.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj58IqjrAtYL8-kcP9ppwVQy-gXZlSuE-lgyhr53F_nYRo5xoh48XELJ6lFPVLCLoGJrHoJ6yRkH3CIdHtS0Ol9-4wCRevvekH3k3iJPAmzhNF5JI_iKZy-LRoI9OFA_oxybEr8O2Qa6uY/s1280/Slide18.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj58IqjrAtYL8-kcP9ppwVQy-gXZlSuE-lgyhr53F_nYRo5xoh48XELJ6lFPVLCLoGJrHoJ6yRkH3CIdHtS0Ol9-4wCRevvekH3k3iJPAmzhNF5JI_iKZy-LRoI9OFA_oxybEr8O2Qa6uY/s640/Slide18.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4cGLOReuLN15FvvDDMub9HtEOdjghTi5T-h0oVPZ40x8g5gm1WG8eo0FCXzhsBrtb1PBRzgAc6NSQFr2lSXXTO73Qqc2Csj8jKDJMAvTxVTSDPzOoF9XOvqKrN-yAP35ECU-gNAQxa9I/s1280/Slide19.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEi4cGLOReuLN15FvvDDMub9HtEOdjghTi5T-h0oVPZ40x8g5gm1WG8eo0FCXzhsBrtb1PBRzgAc6NSQFr2lSXXTO73Qqc2Csj8jKDJMAvTxVTSDPzOoF9XOvqKrN-yAP35ECU-gNAQxa9I/s640/Slide19.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirB1d3Mk7cFPE5EJ25NTsws9oF-n2nkS3QPMqGKvOkRvjMhy08YQXVtfUcCnXf6PKbCth5aCKT3Fc0kz-MqNvbbeNIPkwDomSx3mn8tBBG9FPs1TOZId5phxAqJMeWjp5Nw0lnTNiXgJw/s1280/Slide20.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEirB1d3Mk7cFPE5EJ25NTsws9oF-n2nkS3QPMqGKvOkRvjMhy08YQXVtfUcCnXf6PKbCth5aCKT3Fc0kz-MqNvbbeNIPkwDomSx3mn8tBBG9FPs1TOZId5phxAqJMeWjp5Nw0lnTNiXgJw/s640/Slide20.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">C-14 is the radioactive isotope of carbon that has a half-life (half of the amount present decays) of 5730 years. Plants and animals buried under soil/mud or under water, 200 to 300 million years ago, got converted into fossil fuels. Obviously, because of the long elapsed time, fossil fuels are totally depleted in C-14, and CO2 produced by burning them has no C-14 in it. On mixing with the CO2 already present in the atmosphere, the amount of C-14 in a given volume of CO2 will be reduced. Please <a href="https://ektalks.blogspot.com/2019/12/making-sense-of-our-climate-change-6.html" target="_blank">click here</a> for a detailed discussion of this topic.</span></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjsFz60Qr2X3s-966BTR5YWYT2_urf_veqaLzoHD87DcaP25BbbyZ89W-YcKZP4RJ2xNJQuP2psBssrQs-KciEzhnlcHpzuZLd_rETlUOCPVPDQwdkF8bFYAwRNz4mAaZs8vikTDDFrs1U/s1280/Slide21.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjsFz60Qr2X3s-966BTR5YWYT2_urf_veqaLzoHD87DcaP25BbbyZ89W-YcKZP4RJ2xNJQuP2psBssrQs-KciEzhnlcHpzuZLd_rETlUOCPVPDQwdkF8bFYAwRNz4mAaZs8vikTDDFrs1U/s640/Slide21.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEit8J8nx7PQBZfjCX6ifFZaopvQ-UqrL-vyG1S0iMyM4IylQUjxY_5z_z1zGNhBeeOg4VNohuVgFDE43OY8pD0yX8euC8IldxPVQwjOqMaTyLseI-GVavpsMbuOil0xZuzj8bgMBUl4PNY/s1280/Slide22.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEit8J8nx7PQBZfjCX6ifFZaopvQ-UqrL-vyG1S0iMyM4IylQUjxY_5z_z1zGNhBeeOg4VNohuVgFDE43OY8pD0yX8euC8IldxPVQwjOqMaTyLseI-GVavpsMbuOil0xZuzj8bgMBUl4PNY/s640/Slide22.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZOXaW1tBUtrBWnmKEI39ErTIgMduy86L15KP6y16JEhhEE8tZQzofzKu2O-owDCxef3ej9HqqBuaDL-dwU8g7N-lob2Sqotkop10fOoEok-K4IiSohyxM7HkoEXWQtkpVUKq9MxLpYYQ/s1280/feedbacks+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhZOXaW1tBUtrBWnmKEI39ErTIgMduy86L15KP6y16JEhhEE8tZQzofzKu2O-owDCxef3ej9HqqBuaDL-dwU8g7N-lob2Sqotkop10fOoEok-K4IiSohyxM7HkoEXWQtkpVUKq9MxLpYYQ/s640/feedbacks+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; 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margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEgodDWuVa7RNT_p7YaHnUawxjXp8ZvhQveOzqwZgRMFqFni0Dl2JFpeC44mW76MNCrUXbWo3H1dDPkY3nPyDXTqN6wTSLlZpL5-nl-X5k0WQw63jVUkBbV1E8imHtpZbb8SwG2OzO1oOd0/s640/Slide25.JPG" width="640" /></a></div></span><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjK4jvX0C5V7gs2DG4dh6di6LxWKRC7W5ZG3x9EDfmV6hZgRRoMCrJM4nGOEnPPWphOYKYfK5zlRkXdjP3GAJfMfHhaw2R5Azt4oUTDI7N_gL44KLHTySG-yfvVaxyp-CufVy7045Gq6Bg/s1280/Slide28.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjK4jvX0C5V7gs2DG4dh6di6LxWKRC7W5ZG3x9EDfmV6hZgRRoMCrJM4nGOEnPPWphOYKYfK5zlRkXdjP3GAJfMfHhaw2R5Azt4oUTDI7N_gL44KLHTySG-yfvVaxyp-CufVy7045Gq6Bg/s640/Slide28.JPG" width="640" /></a><div><br /></div><div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjsc5F5Mf_jnByBoPeL59gqZuibvACFYKRj051iyjVLG0irscE3c-7_yEsJSrNPJzRK2wL7SvSlPBcaUgpAKrfDXLvZR-poBV94QGsrLFjMbC5TCHRdmHeiJejT5rvWz0voh2k6EwHzEgQ/s1280/Slide27.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjsc5F5Mf_jnByBoPeL59gqZuibvACFYKRj051iyjVLG0irscE3c-7_yEsJSrNPJzRK2wL7SvSlPBcaUgpAKrfDXLvZR-poBV94QGsrLFjMbC5TCHRdmHeiJejT5rvWz0voh2k6EwHzEgQ/s640/Slide27.JPG" width="640" /><br /></a><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEir94y8UdUyIYeu5YsWLgCBWAY-v1fmFxzRHV6S7p0cHjdZ5Y1Y95YoBqcka7K0JzhIObzOSuoADKsL5Inl48w1SHPnkjHUODkbuoR00GVLyID2EVIaH3JWmbQQ57e5wf4_Dkb5t0dt2_A/s1280/Slide29.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEir94y8UdUyIYeu5YsWLgCBWAY-v1fmFxzRHV6S7p0cHjdZ5Y1Y95YoBqcka7K0JzhIObzOSuoADKsL5Inl48w1SHPnkjHUODkbuoR00GVLyID2EVIaH3JWmbQQ57e5wf4_Dkb5t0dt2_A/s640/Slide29.JPG" width="640" /></a><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0LnqsOUNX-QjAJE8nRVbIYqfTKBytxrU9RB5_myKXN4WU3Bkos0BUEDKhpWizgF7d2X254qiDkVjGHpQFqpNg2O_o5vpQ1K7kJPTIho_bWYYOShWxwn6Uy-oujqfqaFaGdpcIxOFPpbw/s1280/Slide30.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEh0LnqsOUNX-QjAJE8nRVbIYqfTKBytxrU9RB5_myKXN4WU3Bkos0BUEDKhpWizgF7d2X254qiDkVjGHpQFqpNg2O_o5vpQ1K7kJPTIho_bWYYOShWxwn6Uy-oujqfqaFaGdpcIxOFPpbw/s640/Slide30.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiP6HuPnUDsMJnahAH8kNgMcugw0nfzVm0iEaz76nGrdpuSA_UFsuYH70Eooq5Di_7VTclitNXIEPoDjWCS32UIsUSgmHPmwG063gP5BiwKeSoXeLbKGYWQM9wyzwNFSmSyWi9NorUE-RA/s1280/Slide31.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEiP6HuPnUDsMJnahAH8kNgMcugw0nfzVm0iEaz76nGrdpuSA_UFsuYH70Eooq5Di_7VTclitNXIEPoDjWCS32UIsUSgmHPmwG063gP5BiwKeSoXeLbKGYWQM9wyzwNFSmSyWi9NorUE-RA/s640/Slide31.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">The above three slides are adapted from a recent 2019 study published in nature.com. Please <a href="https://www.nature.com/immersive/d41586-019-02711-4/index.html?utm_source=Nature+Briefing&utm_campaign=093e3be58a-briefing-dy-20200820&utm_medium=email&utm_term=0_c9dfd39373-093e3be58a-44308377" target="_blank">click here</a> to access the full paper. </span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">The following slides briefly describe the new technologies that are being considered for removing CO2 from the atmosphere - CO2 that is already there.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;">More details may be found <a href="https://www.carbonbrief.org/swiss-company-hoping-capture-1-global-co2-emissions-2025" target="_blank">here</a>, <a href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-53891414" target="_blank">here</a> and <a href="https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2020/08/this-is-why-the-us-needs-to-lead-the-world-s-reforestation-project/?utm_source=sfmc&utm_medium=email&utm_campaign=2729885_Agenda_weekly-28August2020&utm_term=&emailType=Newsletter" target="_blank">here</a>.</span></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><br /></div><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQ_Pcwqyr6k5jZh2prG1u4YEmVeTHNoX5kpAzHsVO1rjIcM9UDWV8Do2b-cAxB8UhSiN9znB_E0XilqauP-54KZcH6rf7aqn54jCvG_ntnSV4JBe4UQ1EWUIwhavDEFuu4QRspREwVHFA/s1280/Slide32.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEjQ_Pcwqyr6k5jZh2prG1u4YEmVeTHNoX5kpAzHsVO1rjIcM9UDWV8Do2b-cAxB8UhSiN9znB_E0XilqauP-54KZcH6rf7aqn54jCvG_ntnSV4JBe4UQ1EWUIwhavDEFuu4QRspREwVHFA/s640/Slide32.JPG" width="640" /></span></a><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj5RGzCTcbSzYRuSxBDwCmzPtOlErwPVkoAV40oUX0GJ5Wg9Cy6L22BED3wnmku-a0ZMtJvr00uqcskBHMCVjFuGd2TdPkB4tmgaYRNlIl7NWglHAQ4-bxa91CzYfrRLgsrrrZ5olSvsVQ/s1280/DAC+jpeg.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" height="360" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEj5RGzCTcbSzYRuSxBDwCmzPtOlErwPVkoAV40oUX0GJ5Wg9Cy6L22BED3wnmku-a0ZMtJvr00uqcskBHMCVjFuGd2TdPkB4tmgaYRNlIl7NWglHAQ4-bxa91CzYfrRLgsrrrZ5olSvsVQ/w640-h360/DAC+jpeg.jpg" width="640" /></a></div><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><br /></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;"><a href="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhAjITxtenuXh-UZRgB1sV4YZOWQG6matlDuzPoGa1Yi0x15gsN8G1n8kDlthuh9udUBQnQBjQ_vJG3VrSBRQ3WONefhXzDzXccNeMy5hHEUtPiP5FNiNQQHAVorsEbiEgxALzWyKxTLR0/s1280/Slide34.JPG" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" data-original-height="720" data-original-width="1280" src="https://blogger.googleusercontent.com/img/b/R29vZ2xl/AVvXsEhAjITxtenuXh-UZRgB1sV4YZOWQG6matlDuzPoGa1Yi0x15gsN8G1n8kDlthuh9udUBQnQBjQ_vJG3VrSBRQ3WONefhXzDzXccNeMy5hHEUtPiP5FNiNQQHAVorsEbiEgxALzWyKxTLR0/s640/Slide34.JPG" width="640" /></a></div><br /><div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: left;"><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><br /></span></div><span style="font-family: verdana; font-size: large;"><u style="color: #2b00fe; font-weight: bold;">Post Script:</u> </span></div><p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal;"><span face=""Verdana",sans-serif" style="color: black; font-size: 16pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Climate
change has never been taken seriously by most world governments, and suitable
actions were not taken in time to control climate change and mitigate its worst
effects. Even now, when it is obvious that the effects of global
warming are seen in frequent weather events, loss of ice sheets in Greenland,
sea level rise etc., there is no indication that climate change is being taken
seriously - one needs to consider the situation as climate crisis, and treated
as such. The example of the ongoing Covid-19 pandemic stands out when the
world governments quickly found 10 to 15% GDP to fight the pandemic.
Twenty years ago, spending 1% of GDP would have been sufficient to control and
mitigate the effects of climate change.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span face=""Verdana",sans-serif" style="color: black; font-size: 16pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">Similarly, good education about climate
change would create much needed awareness among the general populations, and
they will be more motivated to change their lifestyles and consumption
habits. No serious action by the people in power has been apparent and
valuable time is being lost. The longer we wait for sensible actions to
start, the more extreme and costly measures will be needed. There is no
sign that things are going to change soon.<o:p></o:p></span></p>
<p class="MsoNormal" style="line-height: normal; mso-margin-bottom-alt: auto; mso-margin-top-alt: auto;"><span face=""Verdana",sans-serif" style="color: black; font-size: 16pt; mso-bidi-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-font-family: "Times New Roman"; mso-fareast-language: EN-GB;">One might feel that technology will
help to solve any difficulties that climate change might present in the
future. After all technology has always come to rescue in the past. I
hope things turns out to be this way - although it would be far better if one
could approach the looming threat of climate crisis in a rational way. There is
too much at stake.<o:p></o:p></span></p>Ravi Singhalhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/04460405584380179172noreply@blogger.com0